Irregular Units Research Articles

СТАРОДУБСКИЕ КАЗАКИ В ИРРЕГУЛЯРНЫХ ЧАСТЯХ РОССИЙСКОЙ АРМИИ В КОНЦЕ XVIII – XIX В. ТРАНСФОРМАЦИЯ ПОГРАНИЧНОГО РЕГИОНА

The article, based on a wide range of archival sources, examines in detail the history of the participation of Starodub Cossacks in irregular units of the Russian army at the end of the 18th – 19th centuries. through self-identification of representatives of the class. The research was carried out using methodological practices of new local history. As a result, the author characterizes the period under study in the history of the Starodub region as post-border. But he comes to the conclusion that it is necessary to consider the history of the region at the end of the 18th – 19th centuries. taking into account the existence of not only an administrative, but also a phantom border between Starodub region and the lands of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was the presence of such a border that largely determined the behavior of representatives of the Cossack class. Despite the liquidation of the Starodub regiment – the military-administrative unit of the Malorussian Government General at the end of the 18th century, the Cossacks back in the 1860s. continued to identify themselves with the military class and were ready to guard the border following the example of their ancestors. At the same time, it is emphasized that the lack of their own army was one of the main reasons for the active resettlement of the Starodub Cossacks to the Caucasus and the Black Sea region. At the same time, the Russian government was fully aware of such local specifics and took measures to channel them for the benefit of the state in difficult periods for it.

Contributions of cortical neuron firing patterns, synaptic connectivity, and plasticity to task performance

Neuronal responses during behavior are diverse, ranging from highly reliable ‘classical’ responses to irregular ‘non-classically responsive’ firing. While a continuum of response properties is observed across neural systems, little is known about the synaptic origins and contributions of diverse responses to network function, perception, and behavior. To capture the heterogeneous responses measured from auditory cortex of rodents performing a frequency recognition task, we use a novel task-performing spiking recurrent neural network incorporating spike-timing-dependent plasticity. Reliable and irregular units contribute differentially to task performance via output and recurrent connections, respectively. Excitatory plasticity shifts the response distribution while inhibition constrains its diversity. Together both improve task performance with full network engagement. The same local patterns of synaptic inputs predict spiking response properties of network units and auditory cortical neurons from in vivo whole-cell recordings during behavior. Thus, diverse neural responses contribute to network function and emerge from synaptic plasticity rules.

Noise and vestibular perception of passive self-motion.

Noise defined as random disturbances is ubiquitous in both the external environment and the nervous system. Depending on the context, noise can degrade or improve information processing and performance. In all cases, it contributes to neural systems dynamics. We review some effects of various sources of noise on the neural processing of self-motion signals at different stages of the vestibular pathways and the resulting perceptual responses. Hair cells in the inner ear reduce the impact of noise by means of mechanical and neural filtering. Hair cells synapse on regular and irregular afferents. Variability of discharge (noise) is low in regular afferents and high in irregular units. The high variability of irregular units provides information about the envelope of naturalistic head motion stimuli. A subset of neurons in the vestibular nuclei and thalamus are optimally tuned to noisy motion stimuli that reproduce the statistics of naturalistic head movements. In the thalamus, variability of neural discharge increases with increasing motion amplitude but saturates at high amplitudes, accounting for behavioral violation of Weber's law. In general, the precision of individual vestibular neurons in encoding head motion is worse than the perceptual precision measured behaviorally. However, the global precision predicted by neural population codes matches the high behavioral precision. The latter is estimated by means of psychometric functions for detection or discrimination of whole-body displacements. Vestibular motion thresholds (inverse of precision) reflect the contribution of intrinsic and extrinsic noise to perception. Vestibular motion thresholds tend to deteriorate progressively after the age of 40 years, possibly due to oxidative stress resulting from high discharge rates and metabolic loads of vestibular afferents. In the elderly, vestibular thresholds correlate with postural stability: the higher the threshold, the greater is the postural imbalance and risk of falling. Experimental application of optimal levels of either galvanic noise or whole-body oscillations can ameliorate vestibular function with a mechanism reminiscent of stochastic resonance. Assessment of vestibular thresholds is diagnostic in several types of vestibulopathies, and vestibular stimulation might be useful in vestibular rehabilitation.

Network-forming oxides with non-centrosymmetric structural groups – diffraction results on molybdate and tellurite glasses

The structural units of two types of conditional glass-forming oxides are irregular polyhedra whose distorted shapes result from intrinsic electronic causes. First example: The d0-transition metal cations Mo6+ form an amount of MoO6 in Ag molybdate glasses with the Mo6+ cation displaced towards an octahedral edge. Reverse Monte-Carlo results and comparisons with crystal structures corroborate the earlier diffraction interpretations of three distinct Mo−O distances in the MoO6 units. The post-transitional main group cation Te4+ forms high fractions of TeO5E units in phosphate glasses, where E denotes the lone-pair corner of the structural group. Instead of the regular TeO5E pyramids known for some related crystals, only irregular units are found in the glasses. The bond valences of their longest Te−O bonds are small, requiring the occurrence of three-fold coordinated oxygens.

26-31 Ağustos 1922 Tarihleri Arasında 14. Süvari Tümeni’nin Harekâtı

With the occupation of Anatolia by the Greek forces in 1919, the national resistance operation began. When it was understood that there would be no success against the Greek regular army with irregular units in Anatolia, it was decided to switch to the regular army at the Afyonkarahisar Congress on August 2, 1920. On December 26, 1920, the regular army was transferred. The 14th Cavalry Division was in the Central Army in March 1921, and the division headquarters was in the Zara region. The Commander of the 14th Cavalry Division is Lieutenant Colonel Mehmet Suphi. The division was taken from the Central Command in June 1921 and sent to the Western Front Command. The Western Front Command was attached to the 5th Group, which was newly established in mid-July 1921 and was commanded by Colonel Fahrettin Bey. It was active in the Kütahya-Eskişehir Battles and the Sakarya Pitched Battle and consisted of the 3rd, 54th, and 55th Cavalry Regiments. On September 13, 1921, the 5th Cavalry Group was named the 5th Cavalry Corps. The 14th Cavalry Division was under the command of Brigadier General Fahrettin Pasha and was organized from the 3rd, 5th, 34th, and 54th Cavalry Regiments. The 14th Cavalry Division, attached to the 5th Cavalry Corps, took an active role in the Turkish War of Independence by participating in the Great Offensive and Pursuit Operation with its four regiments. The study will be prepared from archive sources, General Staff Publications, research works, journals, and theses.

입체 유닛조형의 활용에 관한 연구

This paper examines development of Flexible Design Pattern pilot product & possibility of commercialization through demonstration. Above all, it concentrated on developing pilot product of ceramic, architectural materials for universal use & concrete for commercialization and grasped merit & demerit with product through demonstration. Above all, the process of developing pilot product is producing mold through selecting FDP unit type and modelling & 3D printing. In case of mold(output of PLA materials) which was to form clay for pottery that was attempted in the 1st place, it failed, because materials could not be detached from mold. Then, mold was changed and improved to silicon mold. In the subsequent forming process, the problem & know how for producing concrete FDP was acquired through 4 formings which used molds in 5 kinds. Afterwards, 18 sets of pilot products were completed by using mold in type (1-2), (2-3). Finally, listening to the merit & demerit of product through demonstration for which 3 professors related to design cooperated, pilot products were inevitably subject to sensory projection in the process of operating regular & irregular units. As a result, the complete works were satisfactory. More opinion was that once color is added, individual sensory projection would be further promoted, thereby making the products more satisfactory. After all, this opinion could be the representation of products attribute borne by FDP, the following interpretation is possible, namely, they may be competitive as decorative cubic tile & art kit products. Meanwhile, further opinion is that FDP has many technical tasks besides cubic shape or composition method and problems in use like cleaning or maintenance. Although technical part is excluded in this paper, technical part needs to be additionally examined including segmentation of shape design in order to complete products for sale or construction. This is to be studied in cooperation later.

Opyt ispol'zovaniya lyudskih resursov Rossijskoj imperii i vvedenie vseobshchej voinskoj povinnosti na Kavkaze: XVIII — nachalo XX v.

The article is devoted to the experience of using the human resources of the national regions of the Russian Empire of the 18th-19th centuries taken into account when introducing universal conscription in the Caucasus in 1870-1910. In the pre-reform period, various options for the formation and organization of troops were tested, manned by representatives of those groups of the population who did not carry conscription (irregular units, national militias, militias). Particular attention is paid to attempts to apply the Cossack service scheme to foreigners: the establishment of separate troops (Bashkir-Meshcheryak army) and the inclusion of a non-Russian “element” in the already existing administrative-territorial structures of this type (Kalmyks in the Astrakhan and Don Cossack army, Buryats in the Trans-Baikal Cossack army, Ossetians and Kabardins in the Terek Cossack army.

Neki aspekti djelovanja vojske Jugoslavije u agresiji na Republiku Bosnu i Hercegovinu na području srednjeg Podrinja početkom 1993. godine

The presence of regular Yugoslav military forces in central Podrinje and their participation in the aggression against Bosnia and Herzegovina have been evident from the very beginnings. As there were no significant forces of the Yugoslav People’s Army in Bosnian Podrinje, in the beginning of April 1992 the 336th Motorized brigade was dislocated from the area of Tuzla and it established its command post in Šekovići, thus becoming the bearer of battle activities and organization of the Army of the Serb Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina in this region, including in its organic composition all Serb armed formations from Zvornik, Kalesija, Šekovići, Vlasenica, Milići, Bratunac and Skelani. In the attacks during which the Serb forces gained control over a broader area of Central Podrinje, and the Bosniak population, which constituted a pronounced majority of the overall population, was suppressed and reduced to three isolated enclaves on the territory of Cerska, Konjević Polje and Srebrenica, the function of leading and commanding these forces, as well as other regular and irregular units which were directed or acted from the territory of Serbia, was conducted by the Operative group “Drina”, a formation under the command of the Belgrade military zone, later the 1st Army of the Yugoslav Army. In the attacks on the remaining enclaves of Podrinje during the summer and autumn of 1992 the aviation of the Yugoslav Army was employed along with lighter jets of agricultural aviation, as well as artillery from the firing positions of the Yugoslav Army on the territory of Serbia. The contents of the Wance-Owen peace plan, according to which the greater part of the Bosnian Podrinje was supposed to be included into one of the provinces with a Bosniak ethnic majority, which would have spelt the end of the Serb national policy in Podrinje, represented an announcement of a large winter offensive of the Serbian forces. With a directive issued on 19 November 1992 the Drina corps of the Army of Republika Srpska was ordered to defend Višegrad, Zvornik and the corridor towards Serbia with its main forces, to deblock the communication on the line Milići – Konjević Polje – Zvornik, and to exhaust the enemy on the broader area of Podrinje, inflict upon him as much loss as possible, and force him to “leave the areas of Birač, Žepa and Goražde together with the Muslim population”. On the basis of this directive act, the planned offensive military activities of the Serb forces in Central Podrinje, initiated during November and finished with the agreement on the demilitarization of Srebrenica in April 1993, according to the documents of the Army of Republika Srpska, had three successive phases codenamed: “PROBOJ” (Breakthrough), “PESNICA” (Fist) and “UDAR” (Assault). Despite the significant engaged forces, the offensive “PROBOJ” did not go according to plan, and in the counterattacks during December the forces of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina liberated a large number of settled places, and until 9 January 1993 gained control over Serb strongholds in the communication region of Bratunac – Kravica, and thus physically connected all parts of the liberated territory. Then a new offensive was launched, codenamed “PESNICA”, which, aside from the stabilization of the Serb defence of Bratunac, did not achieve its stated goals, while on the other side the forces of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina arrived to the part of the state border with Serbia in the region of Skelani. In the final phase of the offensive, that bore the code name of “UDAR”, the Army of Yugoslavia directly joined the fighting in Central Podrinje on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. From the direction of Bratunac towards Srebrenica the forces from the composition of OG “Drina” and parts of other units from the 1st Army of the Yugoslav Army were active, which established a command outpost in Ljubovija. In central Podrinje parts of the Special units corps of the Yugoslav Army also operated, and during the offensive they were stationed in the region of Skelani. From that side, from the direction of Skelani towards Srebrenica, the forces from the composition of the Užice corps of the 2nd Army of the Yugoslav Army were also active. When the forces of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina were suppressed from the larger part of the territory and together with the masses of Bosniak civilians restricted to the broader town area of Srebrenica, the units of the Yugoslav Army could retreat to the territory of their state. The offensive was concluded with the signing of the agreement about the demilitarization of Srebrenica.

Fighter Battalions of the Leningrad Region Defending the City During the Summer of 1941 — Spring of 1942

The Great Patriotic War became not only the most tragic event in modern Russian history, but also a test for the state system of the USSR, which underwent a number of changes after the outbreak of war. Among other things, the war also affected structures subordinate to the People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs (NKVD). New irregular units were created in the NKVD structure, the so-called fighter battalions designed to protect the Red Army’s near rear and to maintain order in the frontline zone. The article explores issues related to the formation and application of these units in one of the most difficult sections of the Soviet-German front, the Leningrad front. In particular, the process of creating fighter battalions in this region is studied, the level of their material support, and how these units were used in conditions of the German army’s rapid attack on Leningrad and how they were used somewhat later during the siege. The source base includes previously unpublished documents from the Central State Archive of Historical and Political Documents of the city of St. Petersburg and the State Archive of the Russian Federation. An analysis allows not only a comprehensive study of the above problems, but also possible answers to one of the little-studied questions of the history of the Great Patriotic War: how the Soviet command used irregular military formations at the first stage of the war and what role they played in achieving victory.

The Uniform and the Burnous: Colonial Troops and Irregular Units in Western Libya

The Uniform and the Burnous: Colonial Troops and Irregular Units in Western Libya

«Реэстр зюнгорскому ружью», или Вопрос о джунгарском пополнении Ставропольского корпуса крещеных калмыков в политике государства (конец 50 – начало 60-х гг. XVIII в.)

Introduction. The article deals with religious policies that influenced ethnoconfessional military communities in the southeast of the Russian Empire during early modern period. The work provides a first attempt to examine the resettlement of Dzungar Oirat refugees (Russ. zengortsy) from Siberia to the Volga territories and their integration into the Stavropol Kalmyk Host. Materials and Methods. The study analyzes documents of central and local institutions that specify the latter’s attitudes towards both Dzungar arrivals and, at large, irregular units of Kalmyk Christians in steppe border areas. A number of applied techniques inherent to source studies and archaeography made it possible to gain a comprehensive insight into the research materials and reveal certain ties that characterize trends of Russian policies towards the Dzungar question. Results. Clarification of the internal and external reasons to have forced the authorities to conscript Dzungars into the Stavropol Kalmyk Host, i. e. the need to strengthen the latter as a border military-and-police force right after the conflict with the Qing over South Siberian subjects was settled is provided. The paper shows the distribution and infrastructure development of the arrivals across unoccupied lands of the Stavropol Host. Special attention is paid to the biography of Noyon Norbo Danjin, a relative of Amursana who lead Dzungars to the Volga to become a Christian colonel, military judge, and advisor to the Collegium of Foreign Affairs. In terms of discussion, the work outlines the Dzungar conscription in Stavropol-on-Volga historiographically, delineates its correlation to the situation with available sources on contacts between Russia, Qing China, and nomads (Dzungars, Kazakhs). Conclusions. The paper acknowledges the collapse of the Dzungar Khanate proved an enormous geopolitical shift that forced Russia to restructure its external policies across southeastern steppe peripheries and develop its military strength, which brought Dzungar reserve units of the Stavropol Host in significant demand.

Organization of volunteer forces of the Ottoman Empire from representatives of the peoples of the North Caucasus during the Russian-Ottoman war of 1877-1878 on the Caucasus-Asia Minor Front

This article, based on a wide range of sources, primarily of foreign origin (Turkish, English, French and Austrian), examines the issue of an attempt by immigrants from the North Caucasus to integrate into Ottoman society by forming voluntary military units on the eve of and during the years of the Russian-Ottoman war of 1877-1878 The author conducted a study of issues that were practically not studied in domestic and world historiography related to the legislative support of the volunteer movement during the preparation of the armed forces for the expected military conflict with the Russian Empire, the number of formed military units from representatives of the peoples of the North Caucasus, their ethnicity, and command staff and a number of other issues, including uniforms of irregular parts of the Ottoman Empire, weapons and sources staffing. Based on an analysis of the sources available to us, the author concludes that the leadership of the Ottoman Empire is inevitable to seek help from the North Caucasus Muhajir, to form irregular cavalry units from them. The author also concludes that, for the conduct of hostilities on the Caucasus-Asia Minor Front, units formed from the peoples of the Central and Eastern Caucasus were sent: Dagestanis, Kabardins, Ossetians, Chechens and Kumyks, who, after resettlement from the Russian Empire, were settled by the Ottoman government in the territory Sivas and Erzurum vilayets, as well as Samsun (Djanik) sanjak.

Oliferov's Raid on the Territory of Kuzbass in the Winter of 1920–1921: Why the Red Failed

The present article features the raid of the White Guard rebels attempted by Lieutenant-Colonel Oliferov on the territory of Kuzbass (Mariinsky and Shcheglovsky districts) in the winter of 1920–1921. The research objective was to identify the reasons why the Red Army forces failed to promptly crush the rebellion. The methodology was based on the classical principles of historicism and objectivity represented by the typological, comparative-historical, and chronological methods. The authors managed to restore the course of events related to the raid and its progress. The article focuses on the measures taken by the Soviet government to eliminate the White rebels. The analysis of rare archival materials proved that the Soviet military units, represented by special forces, internal service units, and regular military units, failed to coordinate their actions. The irregular Soviet military units were known for their weak discipline, poor training, and frequent cases of desertion. Each of the Red commanders tried to lead the entire operation, thus letting the well-organized and disciplined White detachment to repeatedly avoid the chase and win the battles.

Hybrid warfare: untraceable armies and invisible hands

The object of this research is the concept of “hybrid forces”. Hybrid warfare is a war that employs hybrid force, which hybridity depends on whether they are composed of regular or irregular component. Initially, the irregular component involved partisans, who were later replaced by Special Forces Units, including Commando, which continued to perform a role of irregular units. Hybrid forces, in accordance with the Western doctrines, are most effective. Therefore, it appears relevant to conduct a historical overview and specify methodological approaches towards emergence, role, effectiveness, and potential usage of hybrid forces based on the data provided in foreign sources. The concept is examines its initial meaning, content and relevance of application in describing the conduct of military operations in the modern conditions. The scientific novelty of this work consists in the analysis of foreign source, which in the author’s opinion, underlies the concept of “hybrid warfare”. The historical retrospective, presented in the source, would help theoreticians of hybrid warfare to define this concept with more precision. The conclusion is made that the phenomenon recently dubbed as “hybrid warfare” and “hybrid forces” is not new and has analogues in human history.

Luomas, pašaukimas ir profesija Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės kariuomenėje 1775–1794 m.

ESTATE, CALLING AND PROFESSION IN THE MILITARY OF THE GRAND DUCHY OF LITHUANIA IN 1775–1794 The article reviews development of the military of one part in the Commonwealth of Both Nations, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, from the viewpoint of estate based structure, calling and professionalism. It reveals that, just like in the other armies of the eighteenth century, in Lithuania most of the estate structure could be found in cavalry, especially in the National Cavalry Brigades, and the least – in artillery and engineering corps. Estates did not carry only the negative meaning if the general level of education and skills among nobility was higher than the indicators in other estates. However, because of the generally low level of education before the reforms of the Commission of National Education, military units with estate based privileges (e. g. National Cavalry Brigades) were noted for a low level of professionalism and showed themselves poorly in the course of 1792 war with Russia and the uprising battles of 1794. At the same time, front guard regiments, made-up of Tartars and less privileged individuals, demonstrated much higher standards because estate exclusivity was accompanied by experience and military traditions carried over from the Seven-Year War. The highest standards of professionalism were maintained in the Lithuanian artillery and engineering corps. The progress was notable during the Four-Year Sejm, especially in the winter of 1791–1792. Infantry units were able to harmonize privileges of the estate structure with professional requirements and could be considered as matching the military of other countries in peace time. There was no place for calling in the army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania prior to 1788 drive for expanding the military, and only during the war of 1792 attention was given to the skills of people, holding offices. During uprising of Tadeusz Kościuszko many gifted soldiers came to the fore, and even civilians with leadership gifts who led both improvised rebel units and large military units, thus opening pages of the noble tradition of uprisings in the nineteenth century, where calling and professionalism gradually pushed out the relics of estate-based military. Keywords: military of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, eighteenth century, estate, calling, profession, uprising of Tadeusz Kościuszko, infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineering, irregular units.

Nonverbal hand movement durations indicate post-concussion symptoms of athletes

ObjectiveConcussions are common in sports and appear to be a risk factor for cognitive impairment and mental health problems. Methods of post-concussion diagnosis are still of debate, regarding sensitivity, objectivity, reliability, and costs. Spontaneous displays of nonverbal hand movement behavior during interaction are indicative of psychopathology and relatively simple to record and analyze.BackgroundIncreased durations of continuous (/irregular) body-focused hand movement activity in particular indicates psychopathology that overlaps in symptomatology with that of sport related concussions (SRC). We therefore hypothesized that the duration of irregular, on body, and act on each other hand movements is increased in athletes with SRC who suffer from post-concussion symptoms.Design/MethodsThree matched groups were investigated: 14 symptomatic athletes with a concussion, 14 asymptomatic athletes with a concussion, and 12 non-concussed athletes. Four certified raters analyzed with the NEUROGES analysis system all nonverbal hand movements that were displayed during a videotaped standardized anamnesis about concussion history, incidence, course of action, and post-concussion symptoms.ResultsIrregular Structure units of symptomatic athletes are significantly longer when compared to asymptomatic athletes. Hand movement durations of irregular, on body, and act on each other correlate positively with post-concussion symptoms. The duration of irregular units significantly predicts the PCS score.ConclusionsIncreased durations of irregular hand movement units indicate post-concussion symptoms in athletes with sport-related concussions. Because the recording of spontaneous displays of nonverbal hand movement behavior is relatively simple and cost-efficient, we suggest using the neuropsychological analysis of hand movement behavior as a future diagnostic parameter of concussion management protocols.

Nonverbal Hand Movement Durations Indicate Post-Concussion Symptoms of Athletes.

Methods of post-concussion diagnosis are still under debate with regard to sensitivity, objectivity, reliability, and costs. Spontaneous displays of nonverbal hand movement behavior during interaction are indicative of psychopathology and are relatively simple to record and analyze. Increased continuous (irregular) body-focused hand movement activity in particular indicates psychopathologies that overlap in symptomatology with those of sport-related concussions (SRCs). We therefore hypothesized that the duration of "irregular," "on body," and "act on each other" hand movements is increased in athletes with SRC who suffer from post-concussion symptoms. Three matched groups of 40 athletes were investigated: 14 symptomatic athletes with a concussion, 14 asymptomatic athletes with a concussion, and 12 non-concussed athletes. Using the Neuropsychological Gesture (NEUROGES)-Elan analysis system, four certified raters analyzed all nonverbal hand movements that were displayed during a videotaped standardized anamnesis about concussion history, incidence, course of action, and post-concussion symptoms. The duration of irregular Structure units among symptomatic athletes was significantly longer compared with asymptomatic athletes. Irregular, on body, and act on each other hand movement durations correlated with post-concussion symptoms. Whereas the duration of irregular units significantly predicted the post-concussion symptom score, working memory performances showed only marginal effects. Increased duration of irregular hand movement units indicates post-concussion symptoms in athletes with SRC. Because the recording of spontaneous displays of nonverbal hand movement behavior is relatively simple and cost efficient, we suggest using the neuropsychological analysis of hand movement behavior as a future diagnostic parameter of concussion management protocols.

The use of crowd and riot control squads in modern police operations

Within the structure of the Polish Police, as a formation statutorily responsible for the protection of health, life and property of citizens, there are crowd and riot control squads (Pol. pododdziały zwarte). These are police organisational units , also referred to as riot police units (Pol. OPP - Oddziały Prewencji Policji) and independent riot police subunits (Pol. SPPP - Samodzielne Pododdziały Prewencji Policji). Their main advantage is the possibility of deploying several thousand police officers to respond to various events in a relatively short period of time and, if necessary, to broadly understood threats to the security of citizens. This is achieved by the use of appropriate mechanisms for maintaining readiness to act and achieving higher levels of readiness, as well as due to an organisational structure based on the military model, mobility based on available means of transport, a system of specialist trainings and modularity and compatibility with other police squads. Quite a wide range of opportunities to act in situations of existing threats to people and the environment raises the question of the quality and possibilities for the development of this structure, its strengths, as well as difficulties that emerge, both in terms of a direct involvement in various forms of police action, as well as those relating to the real condition of the structure, in the context of forces and measures available to the squads in question. At this point, it is necessary to mention other police structures referred to as police squads which include officers who daily perform different prevention activities (e.g. they occupy the posts of patrol and responding officers at county and municipal police headquarters). These are so-called irregular riot police units (Pol. NOP - Nieetatowe Oddziały Prewencji) and irregular riot police subunits (Pol. NPP - Nieetatowe Pododdziały Prewencji); however, their role and operational rules are not the subject matter, and the main issue under consideration is so-called regular units, whose officers remain in the structures of riot police units and independent riot police subunits.

Radical parties, irregular units

Radical parties, irregular units

An off-price retailer with two ordering opportunities and demand updating

We develop a model of an off-price retailer who has two procurement opportunities for next season. The first opportunity occurs after the end of the current season when the off-price retailer buys excess inventory from retailers and manufacturers and store them until next season. The second opportunity occurs at the beginning of the next selling season when retailers and manufacturers sell anticipated excess inventory, production overruns and irregular units. At the time of the first ordering opportunity the price for the second ordering opportunity is a random variable whose parameters depend on future prevailing economic conditions. Sometime between the first and second ordering opportunities, the off-price retailer observes a market signal which updates her demand forecast. We find that for non-trendy products, the first ordering opportunity provides the off-price retailer with a way to obtain some inventory at a low cost to hedge against the possibility of high demand with higher prices in the next season. We also find that the off-price retailer is less likely to take advantage of the first ordering opportunity in the case of trendy products which have a large premium for newness. Under limited supplies the off-price retailer is more likely to use the first ordering opportunity even when there is a premium for the newness of the second order.