Iron Age Sites Research Articles

Boat-shaped fibulae from the Early Iron Age sites of Érd and Százhalombatta

AbstractThe primary aim of this study is to present some Early Iron Age brooches found at Érd-Hosszúföldek, including an attempt to clarify some of the cultural connections of the area. The pair of boat-shaped fibulae connected by a chain, the three-footed vessels, and the ribbed cysts indicate a complex and widespread connection network in the period.

Traceology suggests an unexpected use of antler cheekpieces from the Early Iron Age site at Gzin, Poland

Archaeological data confirm the widespread use of horse tack throughout the North European Bronze Age and the succeeding Hallstatt period in an inventory that included metal cheekpieces, phalerae, rein-knobs and other horse-related accessories. Similar usage has been assumed in the region of northern Poland, which has also furnished evidence for the use of horse gear accessories made of antler. This paper reports the results of traceological, isotopic and experimental research on three antler cheekpieces found at the Early Iron Age stronghold of Gzin in northern Poland and relates them further with archaeological and ethnographic patterns of horse exploitation. The results indicate that the artefacts from Gzin have rare comparanda and are isotopically consistent with the δ18Ow range of the site location, which can both be taken as evidence of their local origin. Moreover, traceological and experimental evidence from this study places the function and use of the analysed objects into a new light, undermining their use for horseback riding and suggesting that they were employed as cheekpiece coverings. Combined with the ethnographic record, ceramic iconography and archaeolinguistics, our findings fuel a discussion of deer valorisation during the Lusatian period in Poland, showing that the cheekpieces from Gzin may have served as elements of deer headgear.

Are you those folks from across the sea? Biochemical analysis of human remains from the Roman Iron Age site in Grzybnica (Poland)

Abstract Stone circles of the Wielbark culture, such as those found in Grzybnica, have long fascinated researchers, who debate their function and significance. The aim of the presented study is to determine the origins and subsistence strategies of the population buried near the stone circles in Grzybnica, which may help highlight the role of these sites within Wielbark communities. For analysis, human remains from the cemetery in Grzybnica, West Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland, were utilized. Radiocarbon dating of five samples, stable isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen in two samples, and strontium isotope analysis in 20 cremated human remains and 12 plant samples were conducted. Radiocarbon dating confirmed the earlier dating of the site to the period between approximately 80 and 260 CE. Dietary studies indicated that the individuals buried here regularly consumed millet (mean δ13C = –17.8) and animal protein (mean δ15N = 9.5). This diet corresponds with the variability described for the Wielbark culture site in Rogowo. The strontium isotope analysis revealed significant variation between the river valley (0.7157–0.7264) and the adjacent upland (0.7109–0.7138). The isotopic values in humans were homogeneous, ranging from 0.7113 to 0.7130, indicating no outliers that might suggest the presence of migrants. The variability observed in humans corresponds with the values observed on the upland. The results suggest that the group of individuals buried in Grzybnica was a small community that sourced their food from the upland. It is possible that this community was involved in the care of the stone circles, and the circles themselves may have been places of gatherings for local communities. However, it should be noted that only about 20 % of the graves found at the site were analyzed. The lack of migrants may be due to the low mobility of this group or methodological limitations related to the post-glacial nature of the geological substrate. Alternatively, it could also be due to the limitations associated with studying cremated remains, which allow for the reconstruction of events from only about 10 years prior.

Morphology and taphonomy of the gastropod Terebralia palustris from an iron age site in the Arabian Peninsula

The Indo-Pacific gastropod Terebralia palustris is particularly suitable for comparing natural and anthropogenic induced taphonomic pathways due to its wide geographic distribution and common presence within archeological context. The present study aims to (1) correlate shell architecture and morphology with fragmentation pattern and preservation, (2) quantify taphonomic changes to differentiate between natural vs. anthropogenic preservation features, (3) provide a guideline for analyzing fragmented shell remains in archeological material. Shells and taphonomic features were studied from both recent mangrove environments from the Emirate of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates as well as archeological material within the Iron age II site (1000–600 BC) of Muweilah near the City of Sharjah. Techniques utilized include morphometry, thin sectioning, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of recent specimens and a semi—quantitative taphonomic analysis of anthropogenic material. Thin sectioning shows a complex internal shell morphology with a tripartite subdivision of shell layers. The recent material shows better preserved features on both the exterior and internal shell surfaces than the highly fragmented material recovered from the archeological context, which shows a distinct size distribution as well as showing higher levels of surface abrasion, surface cracks and color alterations. These features are correlated to extraction techniques, cooking methods and waste disposal handling.

The Geochemistry of Unalloyed Copper Metallurgical Group Indicates Copper Ore Sources in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages of the Urals

Trace elements in copper artifacts from Late Bronze and Early Iron Age sites in the Urals, formerly attributed to the metallurgical group of “chemically pure” copper, were analyzed using the method of laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The metal of which artifacts included in this group are made reveals geochemical markers suggesting that “pure” copper actually falls into several subgroups. The PCA analysis of the results identifies 11 clusters corresponding to various sources of copper ores and their mixtures. At least seven principal associations can be linked to copper deposits of different geological types and origin: Au-Te-Bi, Au-Se-Te-Sb, Fe-Co-Ni-As-Sb, Fe-Co-Ni -Zn, Se-Co-Fe, Ag-Pb-Ni, and Sb-Pb-Zn-As. Also, several mixed associations reflect the fusion of copper items and metal scrap initially obtained from different sources: Sn-Pb, Fe-Co-Ni-Zn + Sn, Fe-Co-Ni + Au-Te-Bi-Ag, Fe-Co-Ni + Au-Te-Bi + Sn. A separate association, for which the ore source remains unknown, consists of artifacts characterized by a low content of trace elements, jointly making up less than 0.01 wt%. The largest sample in the Late Bronze Age “pure copper” group falls within the Sn-Pb cluster representing a mixture of local copper and imported Sn-containing copper scrap. Judging by trace elements, the main sources of ore in the “pure copper” group of the Itkul and Sarmatian cultures were the Gumeshki mine and another unidentified source. Both could have been used already in the Final Bronze Age.

The exploitation of mountain natural resources during the Iron Age in the Eastern Pyrenees: the case study of production unit G at Tossal de Baltarga (Bellver de Cerdanya, Lleida, Spain)

The Iron Age site of Tossal de Baltarga (Bellver de Cerdanya) was a large Iberian residential complex occupying a strategic position in the middle of the Eastern Pyrenees. It was destroyed by fire in the second half of the 3rd century BCE, preserving an important volume of archaeological and bioarchaeological material in certain areas. This is the case of Building G, a two-story construction whose violent blaze has offered the possibility of analyzing a precise moment in the history of an Iron Age productive unit. The existence of a stable on the lower floor, where four sheep, a goat, and a horse were documented, and an upper floor, where textile production and storage were evidenced, allows us to analyse the complexity of the economic activities and exploitation of local resources, such as livestock, agriculture, forestry and mining.

The technology and microwear of the bone tools from Broederstroom, an Early Iron Age site in the Magaliesberg, South Africa

ABSTRACT This paper reports the results of a technological and microwear analysis of 110 pieces of worked bone from the Early Iron Age site of Broederstroom in the Magaliesberg region of South Africa. The results are compared to previous studies of bone tools from the contemporary Later Stone Age sites of Kruger Cave and Jubilee Shelter in an attempt to understand whether the Broederstroom pieces were made locally by the farmers or acquired through trade with hunter-gatherers. Although the bone tool technology at Broederstroom does bear some similarities to the bone material at Kruger Cave, it is quite different from that at Jubilee Shelter. This technological distinction likely indicates that the bone tool industry at Broederstroom is a product of local farmer industry. The use-wear results further point to a range of different activities practised by the farmers living at Broederstroom.

Investigations of an Early Iron Age Siege 2

A research team of the Institute of Archaeological Sciences of the Eötvös Loránd University continued the fieldwork between 1 September 2022 and 31 December 2023 on two Early and Middle Iron Age sites, Dédestapolcsány-Verebce-bérc and Dédestapolcsány-Várerdő, in the frame of a project investigating Early Iron Age crises. New excavation trenches were opened at the fortified settlement in the north of the Bükk Mountains (Northern Hungary). One was an extension of a trench opened in 2022, where remains of a burnt house had been identified. Metal detector surveys recovered some new fascinating stray metal finds (e.g., an akinakes, battle axes, and the bronze protective sheath of a sword) and new assemblages (iron tool deposits and a hoard of gold jewellery and amber beads). Eleven more graves were excavated in the cemetery (Várerdő) north of the coeval settlement. The most interesting grave was the burial of an adult man with rich grave goods such as an ironworking toolkit, pottery, and other items.

A Vasconic inscription on a bronze hand: writing and rituality in the Iron Age Irulegi settlement in the Ebro Valley

Relatively few examples of Palaeohispanic writing have been recovered from the Vasconic territories of present-day Navarre, leading to the assumption that the Vascones were a pre-literate society. Here, the authors report on an inscription on a bronze hand recovered at the Iron Age site of Irulegi (Aranguren Valley, Navarre) in northern Spain. Its detailed linguistic analysis suggests that the script represents a graphic subsystem of Palaeohispanic that shares its roots with the modern Basque language and constitutes the first example of Vasconic epigraphy. The text inscribed on this artefact, which was found at the entrance of a domestic building, is interpreted as apotropaic, a token entreating good fortune.

Hammerscale and slag inclusions: New insights into metal supply during the early iron Age in Western Europe

Understanding the nature and origin of iron processed in ancient smithing workshops is essential for unraveling procurement strategies and, more broadly, the circulation of iron. Studying smithing slags traditionally proves complex due to their diverse compositions influenced by hearth substances. Another technique, analyzing slag inclusions in metallic fragments, offers direct insights into the iron's chemical nature. However, the scarcity or absence of these fragments poses challenges in assessing sample representativeness. An alternative approach studies hammerscale, hot iron waste from hammering, providing insights into iron's chemical composition and source. At Weyersheim, an early Iron Age site in France, extensive analysis of 300 hammerscale samples and 77 slag inclusions in 6 iron scraps unveiled a unique geochemical signature. This signature showcases enrichment in Vanadium (V > 800 ppm), Chromium (Cr > 400 ppm), Rare Earth Elements (REE) (∑REE + Y > 1500 ppm), especially Heavy Rare Earth Elements like Yb (>100 ppm), and High Field Strength Elements (HFSE) (e.g., U > 30 ppm). The remarkable chemical uniformity observed in various hammerscale samples, and the slag inclusions indicates that the majority of the processed iron originates from a singular source. Comparison with known iron artifacts, particularly the bi-pyramid iron bars revealed similarities. This source exhibited uncommon enrichment and partitioning patterns of REEs, hinting at a rare geological deposit or a closely associated group of deposits. Plausibly sourced from weathered peralkaline rocks, the iron ore's geological origins potentially link to regions like Vosges and the Black Forest massifs. Nevertheless, identifying the geological formations accountable for these distinctive iron traits remains challenging, as there have been no findings of deposits or iron slag with similar compositions to aid in identification.

Dietary stable isotope analysis on fifth–ninth century AD populations of Lepna and Viidumäe, Saaremaa Island, Estonia

This paper presents the results of dietary stable isotope analyses performed on Migration Period (450–550 AD) and Pre-Viking Age (550–800 AD) populations of Lepna and Viidumäe, Saaremaa Island, Estonia. To date, research on dietary stable isotope analysis in Estonia has mainly focused on populations from other historical periods with an exclusion of material from the fifth to ninth centuries AD. Moreover, the research has been mainly conducted on populations from mainland Estonia, with three Stone Age groups from Saaremaa Island previously studied. The results of this paper suggest that the individuals buried at Lepna and Viidumäe had a diet of mainly terrestrial resources with minimal input from fresh- or brackish-water fish and marine resources. These results are supported by previous zooarchaeological material from Saaremaa, as well as additional analysis of the animal bones found in the Lepna grave. Although the dietary isotope values of Lepna and Viidumäe are similar to previous Estonian data from the Bronze Age (1750–500 BC) up to the Medieval Period (1225–1550 AD), the isotope values of these two populations show variations from the data collected from Iron Age sites in Latvia, Poland, Denmark, Sweden, and Finland thus far.

Mass animal sacrifice at casas del Turuñuelo (Guareña, Spain): A unique Tartessian (Iron Age) site in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula.

Zooarchaeological analyses of the skeletal remains of 52 animals unearthed in the courtyard of an Iron Age Tartessian building known as Casas del Turuñuelo (Badajoz, Spain) shed light on a massive sacrifice forming part of a series of rituals linked to the site's last period of activity and final abandonment. The rites took place towards the end of the 5th century BCE when both the building (intentionally destroyed) and the sacrificed animals were intentionally buried under a tumulus 90 m in diameter and 6 m high. The main objective of the zooarchaeological and microstratigraphic analyses was to determine the phasing of the sacrificial depositions. Evidence gathered from taphonomic assessments and a series of radiocarbon datings indicate that the sacrifices fall into three consecutive phases spanning several years. The findings of the zooarchaeological analyses clearly point to a selection of equid and cattle males. Adult equids predominate (MNI = 41) followed by adult and sub-adult cattle (MNI = 6). Pigs, in turn, are only represented by a few adults and sub-adult females (MNI = 4). Among the animals is a single dog of undetermined sex between 3 and 4 years of age. The fact that the animals are mostly adults discards the likelihood that they died from natural causes or an epidemic. In addition, the scenographic deposition of certain equids in pairs, as well as evidence of the burning of plant offerings, suggest an intentional ritualistic sacrifice. Nine of the initial depositions of Phase 1 in the SE quadrant were scattered and certain of their bones bear marks characteristic of both prolonged open air exposure and scavengers. Another 31 animals from Phases 1 and 2 are represented by almost complete, articulated skeletons, indicating they were promptly covered. Phase 3, by contrast, reveals both almost complete and partial animals bearing clear signs of processing for human consumption. This study thus sheds light on both the sequence of the animal sacrifices and the protocols linked to rites accompanied by the celebration of banquets. Certain features associated with the sealing of this building under a tumulus offer evidence of the decline of the Tartessian Culture. This study thus advances notions serving to contextualize ritual animal sacrifices in the framework of practice observed at other Iron Age sites in the Iberian Peninsula and elsewhere throughout Europe.

Scientific analysis of ancient amber artifacts along the Maritime Silk Road

Amber, highly prized in ancient times, has a wide range of applications. Archaeological evidence confirms that amber played a significant role in long-distance material exchange and trade during ancient times. Baltic amber, in particular, was extensively traded in the Near East region during the Bronze age (e.g., Todd, 1985). The emergence of the Silk Road trade additionally facilitated the spread of amber and its products in the Far East. Extensive archaeological excavations conducted across the Eurasian steppe (Treister, 2020), as well as in China and the Korean Peninsula, have yielded numerous amber artifacts originating from the Baltic Sea (e.g., Park et al., 2016; Xiao et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2022). The northern region of Myanmar served as a significant source of amber material in Asia during ancient times, and amber from this area and its products have also been discovered in the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 AD) tombs in China (Chen et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2023). It is generally accepted that the ancient amber artifacts in China were primarily made from amber obtained from both the Baltic region and Myanmar (e.g., Xu, 2008). However, the scarcity of amber in Iron Age sites across South and Southeast Asia impedes tour comprehensive understanding about its usage and trade among this specific area.

European Pond Turtle (Emys orbicularis) remains in Iron Age contexts of the Spanish Northem Iberian Peninsula

The aim of this paper is to present some new data concerning the systematic identifications of several terrapin findings documented in three Iberian Iron Age sites from the Northern Meseta and Basque-Cantabrian Basin: El Soto de Medinilla (Valladolid), La Mota (Valladolid) and La Hoya (Álava). New interpretations concerning the first-hand study of these remains are presented. With the aim of comprehending the interaction of humans with these reptiles, we consider that they were mainly captured as a food resource. The previous identification of Emys orbicularis (i.e., the European Pond Turtle) in El Soto de Medinilla and La Mota is confirmed and justified. The identification of the same taxon in La Hoya constitutes the youngest archaeological reference of its presence in the Basque-Cantabrian Basin.

Livestock management at the Late Iron Age site of Baltarga (eastern Pyrenees): an integrated bio-geoarchaeological approach

Despite the important role of livestock farming amongst Iron Age communities living in mountain regions, there is little information about livestock management, and particularly stabling practises, breeding systems, and grazing/foddering patterns. The study of the ground floor of Building G in Tossal de Baltarga has provided valuable insights into these important issues and has given us a better understanding of the social and economic patterns involved in all these livestock activities. It revealed the existence of a stable from the Late Iron Age, thanks to unique in situ finds of the stabled animals, including four sheep, a goat, and a horse, in addition to a range of organic remains preserved by fire and penning deposits. It is the first documented to date in the northeastern Iberian Peninsula. Through an integrated bio-geoarchaeological approach, combining a range of analytic procedures, including osteology, dental microwear, stable isotopes, phytoliths, dung spherulite analyses, and thin-section micromorphology, for the first time, this study has provided new, high-resolution evidence of livestock management strategies. Specifically, the research shed light on animal penning and feeding practises, revealing variable herbivorous regimes between species, the practise of seasonal movements, and the possible use of fodder as the main dietary regime of the animals stabled there. At the same time, the Baltarga case-study illustrates an indoor production unit that could reveal possible private control of some domestic animals in the Pyrenean Late Iron Age.

Which pulse is it? Identifying archaeological legumes seeds by means of biometric measurements and geometric morphometrics

The taxonomic identification of archaeological seeds of certain cultivated pulses is challenging due to a combination of low interspecific morphological differences and large intraspecific variability. This study develops biometric and morphogeometric models that establish which species have more similarities with the doubtful archaeological pulse seeds. The species under study are: Lathyrus cicera/sativus (grass pea), Lens culinaris (lentil), Pisum sativum (pea), Vicia ervilia (bitter vetch), V. faba (broad bean), and V. sativa (vetch). The two models were trained on data from three different types of samples: contemporary uncharred seeds, contemporary charred seeds, and archaeological seeds. The last one consists of finds unearthed on Bronze and Iron Age sites throughout the Western Mediterranean and can be subdivided into two groups: clearly identified taxa and uncertain taxa. The biometric model resorts to the measurements of length, width and thickness of the three types of seeds so as to establish a discriminant linear model applicable to the uncertain archaeological seeds. The morphogeometric model is based on the shape of the three types of seeds gleaned from geometric morphometry. The uncertain archaeological seeds were then classified by means of a Linear Discriminant model based on shape descriptors. This study first assessed the accuracy of the two models stemming from observations of clearly defined contemporary and archaeological taxa. The results indicate that the models, in particular the morphogeometric, yield high predictive rates. These models therefore offer the possibility of re-identifying the taxa of doubtful archaeological seeds with a high degree of confidence and a minimal margin of error. The positive outcome of these models thus paves the way to more accurate determinations of archaeological legume seeds that heretofore have remained unidentified by traditional methods.

Szalacska and the Hallstatt period metal vessels from Western Hungary

Conventionally, Nagyberki-Szalacska is thought to be one of the most significant Early Iron Age sites in Western Hungary. Its importance is underlined by a few metal sheet fragments unearthed in 1941 during the looting of a tumulus of the Szalacska cemetery. Their rich decoration and the traces of the manufacturing process as well as other marks suggest that the metal sheet was used as a cover for a vessel made of some organic material. The decoration of the metal sheet provides new information regarding the cultural contacts between Nagyberki-Szalacska and the EIA centres of power in southeast Austria. In addition to the metal sheet fragments from Szalacska, a hitherto unpublished ensemble of bronze vessel fragments kept in the Hungarian National Museum highlights the need for a revision of the information about the EIA toureutics in western Hungary.

Irresolution as Historical Practice and the Case of the Unnamed Woman in Timnah

Abstract This article is an experiment with irresolution as methodology in historical re-presentation. The focus is identity irresolution in Timnah, an Iron Age site in the Shephelah of the southern Levant. In biblical narrative, Timnah is brought to life in the stories of an unnamed woman in Judg 14–15. In archaeology, the site has been identified with Tel Batash (Tell el-Batashi in Arabic). The purpose of this article is twofold: to write a counterhistory of the unnamed woman that emphasizes the mystery of her identity and to articulate how irresolution can expand the scope of the historical practice in biblical studies. After an introduction and a discussion of irresolution as methodology, I offer a deep reading and re-presentation of the textual evidence, followed by an examination of the archaeological interpretations at Tel Batash. I conclude by considering the ethics of history writing in biblical studies.

“A land whose stones are iron...”—Iron ore sources in the Southern Levant

Recent discoveries of iron production remains in multiple Iron Age sites throughout the Southern Levant indicate the significance of iron production in the region during this time. However, one main question remains unanswered—that is, provenance: Where were the iron resources located? Were they local or brought from afar? Answering these questions would allow great potential for reconstructing iron-ore procurement strategies and exploitation practices in the social, political, and economic context of the Southern Levant in the early 1st millennium BCE. It has long been assumed that iron ore, prevalent in the Earth's crust, is widely available. However, since high-grade ore was required for the smelting technology of the time, the bloomery process, only selected iron ore deposits in the region were suitable. This study aims to identify and characterize chemically and isotopically enriched iron-ore sources in the Southern Levant. Samples were collected from sedimentary and hydrothermal sources and analyzed for their iron content, trace elements composition, and osmium (Os) isotopic ratios. Here, we present the results of this preliminary investigation, introducing several substantial ore sources in the region and demonstrating the possibility of differentiating between these sources based on their chemical and Os isotopic composition. Finally, hematite objects from selected Iron Age archaeological sites are compared against the analyzed ore sources, showing inconsistency with the sampled ores.

Digging through Databases—A Case Study of Iron Age Sites in Finland by Generating and Analysing Keywords

The primary purpose of this study is to open the discussion of FAIR principles in Finnish archaeology. This topic has not yet been actively discussed in Finnish archaeology. In this study, we were testing whether adding keywords could increase the reusability of the Register of Ancient Sites, as the reusability level of the current register is low. The case study focuses on creating an overview of the Iron Age sites in the Itä-Häme area. Keywords were added for all of the 585 archaeological sites in the study area, based on field reports and find catalogues. After giving keywords to all of the sites, it was possible to make queries from the register and form a new, more detailed overview of the Iron Age sites in the Itä-Häme area. Our study revealed mistakes and ambiguities in the register, but adding keywords increased its reusability. However, it cannot solve the main issue: basic research has not been carried out extensively enough in Finland. Based on the overview, it can be seen that Itä-Häme was an active and important area in the Iron Age, and an especially meaningful possible new site type was identified; however, more research in this area is needed.