Displaced Persons Research Articles

Labour Market of Ukraine and Meeting Post-War Workforce Supply Market Demands

Introduction. Full-scale military actions in Ukraine increased the dynamics of changes in the labour market, caused significant uncertainty in influencing factors, and increased the imbalance of supply and demand in the labour market, which was characterised as a crisis even before the invasion. This strengthened the need for a relevant assessment of the needs of the Ukrainian labour market and the possibility of its personnel support and management of labour resources, taking into account the risks for the country's economy and post-war reconstruction. Aim and tasks. The purpose of this article is to evaluate the labour market of Ukraine in the post-war period and substantiate ways of meeting the market's personnel needs using the example of the construction and IT industries. The tasks of this study are to identify the factors affecting the labour market in the post-war period, assess the dynamics of changes in the balance of demand and supply in the labour market in the post-war period, and develop a mathematically formalised approach to the adaptive assessment of the labour market. Results. The developed mathematically formalised approach to assessing the imbalance of the labour market in individual areas allowed the stabilisation of the demand and supply of the IT labour market in 2026 at a level 1.496 times lower than the maximum in 2023. In the construction industry, differentiation in sectoral priorities of post-war reconstruction has been determined, as evidenced by the expected shortage of personnel in this industry, which is 2.15 times higher than the indicator for all industries. This is also indicated by the differentiation in the demand for qualified workers from 20% to 60% for large and small construction enterprises. Conclusions. The identified reasons for the uncertainty of factors affecting the labour market (losses in the quality of labour resources and forced migration) proved that post-war reconstruction would require an adaptive approach to managing labour resources at all levels. The lack of personnel in the post-war period will require a change in the concept of ensuring the competitiveness of domestic enterprises by using cheap labour. It was determined that the demand for qualified personnel in the post-war period for all industries would grow, which is confirmed by the dynamics of the index of change of employees, which is 30% higher for qualified workers than unskilled workers. Significant differentiation by micro-specialty influences the gap between demand and supply, which does not consider the market's needs.

Adaptation of Ukrainians to forced migration: a study of psychosocial models and factors

The issue of adaptation to migration is particularly relevant due to the large number of Ukrainians who have been temporarily or permanently displaced since the outbreak of war in Ukraine. This article analyzes empirical results to identify the peculiarities of social and psychological adaptation of Ukrainians to forced migration. Two models of socio-psychological adaptation are identified: a passive model for those forced to migrate due to the war, and an active model for those who migrated consciously. The study finds that the process of socio-psychological adaptation of forced Ukrainian migrants is based on the conflict between the desire to integrate into a new socio-cultural environment and the desire to return to their homeland, resulting in a pronounced affective component. This passive adaptation relies on external control and resources. In contrast, the active model of adaptation of voluntary migrants reveals internal psychological resilience and a focus on self-realization and integration. The article concludes by highlighting the need for psychological interventions aimed at developing subjectivity and problem-solving strategies to optimize the adaptation process for forced Ukrainian migrants.

Who Counts as Child? Using Child as Method and Fanon to Challenge Figurations of Childhood

Child as method is a critical and interdisciplinary approach interrogating figurations of childhood that engage, organize, justify (and perhaps even resist) sociopolitical processes. In this article, we start by presenting Child as method as a conceptual and methodological tool for critical research in childhood, education, and psychological studies and then show how it informed discussions of and about childhood in two different projects. The first concerns Legal Gender Recognition in the United Kingdom where a Child as method perspective highlights how the idea of developmentalism is embedded in figurations of childhood. This aligns with age conformities of “being more like adults than children,” while also showing how gender recognition and childhood have been built in opposition to each other. The second project mobilizes Child as method as a conceptual and methodological orientation to critically reflect on the role-played by age assessment practices in migration control in Greece. This highlights how “the child” becomes a trope within forced migration policies and practices, and how “childhood” performs a social condition in which children are represented as victims in state and humanitarian discourse. In doing so, this not only creates a “universalised” notion of childhood but also enacts epistemic violence. Indeed, these discourses mobilize action in the form of age assessment for those young people who do not look or perform like “real children,” establishing, in essence, who is and is not welcomed in the Western territory. The article ends by discussing Frantz Fanon as a critical childhood theorist. It depicts how Fanon’s contribution informs, conceptually and methodologically, the research analytic of Child as method. Together with Child as method, we put forward Fanon’s contribution to critical childhood studies while highlighting Fanon’s call for action from everyone, including children.

Про сутність поняття “внутрішньо переміщена особа”

The article describes the essence of the concept of “internally displaced person”. Theoretical and legal approaches to the content of the concept of “internally displaced persons” have been studied. It was established that forced migration plays an important role in the modern worldmigration process of the population of Ukraine. It is argued that for the first time the term “internally displaced person” was used in jurisprudence in the last decade of the 20th century, when the need for an international response to the rather important problem of protecting the rights of displaced persons definitely arose. Statistical data on the number of internally displaced persons in Ukraine are indicated. It is noted that precisely as a result of military aggression by the Russian Federation on the territory of Ukraine, the problem of forced migration and its solution is one of the main ones for the state and society. It is proven that an internally displaced person is a citizen of Ukraine, a foreigner or a stateless person who is in the territory of Ukraine on legal grounds and has the right to permanent residence in Ukraine, who was forced to leave or leave his place of residence as a result or in order to avoid negative consequences. It is indicated that internally displaced persons are under the legal protection of their country in accordance with international human rights legislation. The article indicates the main reasons for forced migration of the population, which encourage citizens to move within the borders of their country. These include, first of all, military conflict, occupation or annexation of territory, cruel treatment, manifestations of violence, genocide of the population, violation of human rights and freedoms, as well as environmental, social, economic, man-made and other causes. It was emphasized that internally displaced persons need to adjust to a new place of residence, which should become safer for them. It has been studied that the protection of internally displaced persons implies an important obligation for the state to create legal, social and economic conditions for the realization of their rights and freedoms, under which it is possible to protect the rights of individuals, as well as the activities of state organizations for the protection of human rights. The article offers the author’s definition of the essence of the concept of “internally displaced person” in Ukraine.

THE EU RESPONSE TO THE MASSIVE INFLUX OF DISPLACED PERSONS FROM UKRAINE IN 2022

Russia has been conducting military action against Ukraine since 24 February 2022, in violation of the prohibition on the threat or use of violence against the territorial integrity or independence of any state, which is one of the fundamental principles of modern international law. The Russian aggression has resulted in a sharp increase in migratory pressure on the EU. As a result, the Union launched a special temporary protection procedure for the first time in its history. As temporary protection is one of the instruments of the Common European Asylum System, this article begins with an analysis of its nature within EU asylum policy. The article’s next research question and objective relate directly to the EU’s response to the Russian act of aggression. They are relevant for clarifying the political context of the activation of temporary protection and, simultaneously, establishing the circumstances necessary for the activation of temporary protection in the light of Council Directive 2001/55/EC. This Directive and Council Implementing Decision 2022/382 determine the normative construction of the temporary protection 2022. These elements are its duration, the categories of beneficiaries, and the beneficiaries’ entitlements, which result in obligations for Member States. The analysis of these issues will determine to what extent temporary protection is a viable and effective measure of international protection for displaced persons from Ukraine.

Three theses on informal housing in Europe

This editorial introduction to the Special Issue ‘The rules, institutions and politics of housing informality in Europe’ argues for a more holistic interpretation to housing informality in Europe as a critical heuristic for re-thinking the dynamics of informality in the global North. In so doing, it offers three modest theses. First, housing informality is an endogenous phenomenon in the development of European cities, closely connected to the logics of capitalist modernity and currently located at the intersection of new patterns of forced migration and an ever-intensifying housing crisis. Second, housing informality is (also) a by-product of direct forms of public support, toleration and legitimation, as well as the consequence of deliberate (in)action by the State. This results in a clear public politics of informal space, in the framework of which informal housing is an instrument of governmentality in the hands of ruling elites. Third, housing informality is normatively ambiguous. In fact, informal dwelling practices create an archipelago of institutional micro-geographies at the city scale, that generate, in turn, heterogeneous spheres of urban citizenship rights. This selective spatial autonomy can be inhabited as much by processes of rights expansion, emancipation and solidarity as well as by practices of right-restriction, exploitation and precarization.

‘At some points you feel awful because you are going to start again’: The ambiguous role of education in highly skilled refugee women’s integration experiences

In refugee and migration studies, education has been situated as both a marker of integration and a facilitator of progress in other domains. This paper draws on the accounts of three highly skilled women who have experienced forced migration to highlight some of the ambiguities of education’s role in pathways to social and economic inclusion. A case study approach allows for a detailed and contextual exploration of how intersections of age, caring responsibilities and immigration status influence women’s ability to engage with education. Participants’ accounts confirm that accessing desired and appropriate educational provision can propel people towards their longer-term goals. However, provision that is inaccessible or perceived to be below women’s skill levels can be experienced as exclusionary and demoralising, with attendant impact on women’s perceptions of integration and hopes for the future. Women deploy several strategies to overcome these obstacles, including leveraging existing social connections and re-evaluating their future career pathways. Yet these strategies are not always fully successful. Our findings point towards the need for improved provision for adult refugees and a concerted effort by educational institutions to tackle continuing systemic barriers to education.

“This story is not about immigrants but about refugees”: “Loose Change” by Andrea Levy

ABSTRACT In the past two decades, the critical discourse of migration has shifted from an emphatic validation of migrancy still dominant at the end of the last century to a more differentiated view, taking into account the challenges of forced displacement. This article describes this shift and explores how it has facilitated new readings of migrant literature. It re-examines Andrea Levy’s short story “Loose Change”, discussing how its reception so far has hinged on the assumption of a principal sameness of all migrants. Following this, it problematizes critics’ consistent omission to reflect on the differences Levy develops between the narrator, a well-to-do descendant of the Windrush generation, and a homeless refugee from Uzbekistan. As is shown, close attention to these differences yields a new understanding of Levy’s short story which raises crucial questions about British civil society’s attitude to refugees and British civilians’ implication in their fates.

The inclusive mindset transformation needs of teachers working in challenging conditions: An examination from the perspective of Activity and Attribution Theory

The study examines the professional transformation and support required by teachers in challenging conditions, particularly those with students affected by forced migration, to implement inclusive pedagogy. Through a case study involving three primary school teachers, data were gathered using individual and focus group interviews, and observations. The study, framed within Activity Theory and Attribution Theory, identified the teachers' needs and the difficulties they face in applying inclusive pedagogy. Findings emphasize the need for mindset transformation and professional development in three areas: internalising inclusive education, recognizing personal empowerment, and gaining experiential knowledge. The study recommends supporting teachers to overcome systemic challenges and promoting a growth-oriented mindset. Future research should include other stakeholders' perspectives and further explore theoretical relationships.

Uncertainties of Temporary Protection: Forcibly Displaced People From Ukraine and Bosnia and Herzegovina

ABSTRACTThe experiences of displaced persons, currently particularly from Ukraine, are reflected in the concept of temporary protection as an immediate response to mass displacement. This article proposes a consideration of temporary protection from the perspective of ‘openness’, ‘in‐betweenness’ and the various forms of insecurities in people's lives in new societies and on their journeys. Refugees are connected in multi‐layered networks along their routes; forced migration goes in all directions; therefore, fluidity, situational dependency and macro factors determine its dynamics. The empirical data on Ukrainian refugees in Slovenia and the consideration of the situation of Bosnian refugees in the period of the Yugoslav wars show a complex interplay of structural and individual factors that determine the position of temporarily protected persons in larger transnational networks. The article also reflects on the relational question of international protection from the perspective of ‘deservedness’ and hierarchies among different migrant groups.

FORMATION OF A NEW PARADIGM OF GLOBAL POLITICAL AND MIGRATION PROCESSES UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF MILITARY OPERATIONS IN UKRAINE

The events of February 2022, related to the military aggression of the Russian Federation and a full-scale attack on Ukraine, became the greatest catastrophe of the twenty-first century and the most brutal war on European soil since the Second World War, and is gradually being defined as World War III in terms of its impact on global political and economic relations and the use of military weapons. Although no final assessment has been made (the war is ongoing), the undeniable consequence of Russian aggression has been the violation of the world order built after World War II and the risk of global chaos. One of the most powerful consequences of the war was an unprecedented wave of Ukrainian migration, the lion's share of which was to Europe. And while European countries, faced with an unprecedented influx of refugees, are withstanding the socio-economic burden with dignity, Ukraine has found itself in a demographic catastrophe. The wave of forced migration coincided with long-term demographic problems: a decline in the birth rate, an increase in the number of middle-aged people, and the outflow of population during the war. All these processes will have a steady impact on global migration and political processes. New instruments of state and global regulation of these processes will be required. They will also require the formation of a new paradigm of global economic development. The authors aim to deepen the study of the issue of identifying and assessing the preconditions and consequences of migration processes in the world under the influence of military operations in Ukraine. The paper examines the impact of migration processes on globalisation and economic processes in Europe and the world; the dynamics of the share of labour migrants in the total labour force by income level of destination countries in 2013, 2017, 2020; features of the migration wave of Ukrainians evacuated due to the military aggression of the Russian Federation in 2022; generalised statistical information on the migration processes of Ukrainians during the period of 01.02.2023 – 21.06.2023; detailed statistical data on the number of Ukrainian citizens abroad (as of 01.02.2023), broken down by migrant countries; political and socio-cultural context of the formation of a new paradigm of migration processes. The full implications for Ukrainian migration will be summarised after the war is over, but the following interim conclusions are relevant today. The analysis of migration processes in the world and Europe in the current context suggests that migration is actively taking place and contributes to the development of international integration, as it reduces the number of barriers and increases opportunities. The war in Ukraine will have a significant impact on the economy in terms of the following effects: disruption of global supply chains, increased inflationary pressures, higher energy and raw material prices; food prices will also increase as supplies of wheat and cereals from the Russian Federation and Ukraine are disrupted. and Ukraine have been disrupted; higher energy and commodity prices will cause further inflation, deteriorating economic prospects, reduced confidence and increased financial market risk associated with greater geopolitical tensions; worsening food security in some developing countries in the Middle East and Africa. On the other hand, migration is currently seen as a tool for long-term growth in the EU. The analysis shows that migration provides significant economic benefits, primarily to host countries. Today, the EU is facing a growing shortage of skilled labour due to unfavourable demographic trends in Europe. Given the massive emigration of Ukrainian citizens to the EU, migrants are solving the problem of staff shortages. This is especially true given that Ukrainian emigration provides for adequate social protection and legal support, which guarantees the right to settlement, work and education. The right to employment is readily exercised by Ukrainian migrants, as they are largely people of working age, primarily women. In general, it can be argued that the prospects for regional migration are currently linked to many factors and very uncertain prospects for a return to the pre-2022 or pre-pandemic models of the Eastern Partnership. The war in Ukraine is already escalating into a protracted conflict that will threaten both the economic situation of millions of people and the hopes of temporarily displaced Ukrainians to return home for a long time. As a result, displaced Ukrainians, their host EU countries, and the Ukrainian government will have to deal with the new circumstances, adapting temporary modalities to longer-term solutions.

Epistemic notions of trust and distrust in institutional encounters with forced migrants in Finland and Sweden

ABSTRACT This article examines epistemic notions of trust and distrust in institutional encounters from the perspective of forced migrants settling in the changing welfare states of Finland and Sweden. While there is an emerging body of research on the forms, antecedents and directions of trust among forced migrants, the epistemic notion of trust is still under-researched. This article draws on interviews with forced migrants settling in Finland and Sweden. The theoretical framework combines theoretical understandings of trust and epistemic interactions. In the analysis, I show how epistemic notions of trust and distrust, which entail being trusted or distrusted as a knower, emerge as central in understanding trust shaping in institutional encounters. The article illuminates the role of intermediators in epistemic trust and distrust trajectories, as trust-shaping processes also involve actors other than street-level bureaucrats. In addition, the article introduces the concept of epistemic scaffolding to show the importance of supporting service users with a forced migration background as knowers to be. Thus, the article contributes to scholarly discussions around the multifaceted and dynamic phenomenon of trust and its various directions among forced migrants in the context of institutional encounters in the Nordics.

Comparison of the Effects of Different Palatal Morphology on Maxillary Expansion via RME and MSE: A Finite Element Analysis.

This study aims to compare and analyze the biomechanical effect and the displacement trend of RME and MSE on the maxillofacial complex under different palatal shapes by using finite element analysis. The three-dimensional model of maxillofacial complex was obtained from a computed tomography image of a person with a normal palate. Then, we modified the shape of the palate to obtain the model with a high palate. Additionally, two expander devices were considered. MSE and RME were created and four models were made: Model 1: Normal-palate craniomaxillofacial complex with RME expander; Model 2: Normal-palate craniomaxillofacial complex with MSE expander; Model 3: High-palate craniomaxillofacial complex with RME expander; Model 4: High-palate craniomaxillofacial complex with MSE expander. Then, lateral forced displacement was applied and the analysis results were obtained. The lateral displacement of the palatal suture of Model 3 is greater than that of Model 1, and the maxilla has more rotation. The crown/root ratio of Model 1 is significantly greater than that of the other three groups. Compared with Model 1, Model 3 has greater stress concentration in the superstructure of the craniomaxillofacial complex. Both of them have greater stress in the anchorage area than Model 2 and Model 4. Different shapes of the palate interfere with the effects of RME and MSE, and its influence on the stress distribution and displacement of the craniomaxillary complex when using RME is greater than MSE. The lateral displacement of the palatal suture of MSE is significantly larger than that of RME. It is more prone to tipping movement of the anchor teeth using RME under normal palate, and MSE may manage the vertical control better due to the smaller crown/root ratio than RME and intrusive movement of molars.

Porosity on the Thailand-Myanmar border: before and after Myanmar’s 2021 coup

ABSTRACT Points of political crisis in Myanmar’s history have been the catalyst for forced migration, and the Thailand-Myanmar border has, for decades, been a site of significant border-crossing. But while tens of thousands arrived in Thailand in the aftermath of previous crackdowns by Myanmar’s military, the severity of the February 2021 coup has not been met with a commensurate increase in arrivals. What explains the difference? Over time, the border is demonstrating differential porosity. In this article I theorise the physical, political and social elements that shape border porosity and locate spaces where informality resides within these elements. I liken porosity to a circuit board that stretches deeply into stakeholder states, with dimmers or switches that control the porosity of the border. I examine the case of the Thailand-Myanmar border pre- and post-coup and find that the ability of local actors to exercise discretion in heeding government policy diminished over time. This decrease in informality conditioned the porosity of the border. Part geography, part policy, and part informal social construction, the concept of porosity focuses on the journey, responds to a call for radically decentring the migration governance literature, and helps to uncover the troubled possibilities that border-crossers and potential border-crossers face.

Uncovering the Nexus of Identity and Forced Migration: A Collaborative Autoethnographic Study of Afghan Women’s Experiences in Diaspora

This qualitative research investigates the educational mobility of Afghan women in diaspora, particularly those who have experienced forced migration following the Taliban's takeover of Afghanistan in 2021. The study delves into how their intersectional identities, including gender, ethnicity, religion, and socioeconomic status, shape their educational experiences. These Afghan women's educational journeys are further complicated by the challenges posed by political and economic conditions in refugee communities, which limit their access to education and employment opportunities while increasing the risk of discrimination and violence. Using an autoethnographic approach, we leverage our personal experiences as Afghan women who immigrated to Canada during two distinct Taliban occupation eras. Through self-reflection, journaling, and daily life observation, we provide nuanced insights into the multifaceted challenges faced by Afghan women during their forced displacement and migration.

Making rent: how forced migrant families access private rental housing in the Biqa’ Valley, Lebanon

The private rental market is a key provider of housing to forced migrants. This paper examines qualitative data from case study research in rapidly urbanizing towns in the Biqa’ Valley, Lebanon, focusing on Syrian forced migrants’ efforts to access housing through the local private rental sector. Building on literature about landlord–tenant relations and anthropological work on kin, I argue that rental agreements ought to be understood as both financial and social arrangements, which involve family members, landlords and middlemen ( shaweesh) in complex rental ecologies. I find that young Syrians are caught up in evolving financial and social obligations, which make inhabitation possible, but which perpetuate gendered and xenophobic forms of dispossession. I argue that humanitarian and development actors advocating for the right of forced migrants to settle in urban areas ought to avoid perpetuating reliance on an inequitable private rental sector.

A psychosocial bouldering intervention improves the well-being of young refugees and adolescents from the host community in Lebanon: results from a pragmatic controlled trial

BackgroundMental health and psychosocial support (MHPSS) is increasingly considered vital for addressing the needs of displaced communities. The mental health of young people in Lebanon, including members of the host community and refugees, has been severely affected by multiple crises. Physical activity (PA) is an effective means for enhancing mental health, but evidence of PA’s impact on mental health among forcibly displaced populations is still emerging and often varies widely across studies.MethodIn this waitlist-controlled study, we examined the effectiveness of an 8-week psychosocial bouldering group intervention offered by the nonprofit organization ClimbAID on psychological well-being, distress, self-efficacy, and social cohesion in a group of mostly Syrian refugee adolescents residing in the Bekaa Valley, Lebanon. The intervention consisted of 8 sessions and took place once a week for 2 h in a group of up to 12 adolescents with 2 trained facilitators and up to 2 volunteers, supervised by a climbing instructor and a social worker. Multilevel analyses were performed for all outcomes.Results233 people were included in the study. The dropout rate was approximately 33%. The IG improved significantly more than the waitlist group in terms of overall mental well-being and psychological distress. Group allocation was a significant predictor of improvements in mental well-being and psychological distress and showed a trend toward predicting self-efficacy. There was no positive impact of the intervention on social cohesion.ConclusionsEven in complex humanitarian settings of forced displacement, a psychosocial bouldering intervention reduces psychological distress and increases well-being in a mixed group of host and refugee youth in Bekaa, Lebanon.Trial registrationProspectively registered with ISRCTN 13005983, registered April 1st, 2022.

Численность населения Республики Коми: от переписи населения 1897 г. к переписи населения 2021 г.

This article examines the population censuses conducted in the Russian Empire, the USSR and the new Russia; it reveals the peculiarities and methodological apparatus of each population census, presents the main questions of census lists, their comparability with previous censuses, notes new questions and explains their application. Thus, in the 2010 population census, the term “household” was introduced in the question on kinship (property) with other persons living with the respondent; in the question on marriage status, the concepts “officially divorced” and “separated” were differentiated; the levels of education and the presence of a degree were highlighted; the results of population censuses are given according to statistical data for the Komi Republic. The results of the population censuses of 1939 and 1959, which made it possible to assess the scale of forced migration to the Komi region, are separately considered. For each population census, the timing of its conduction and the critical moment are given, it is explained why certain population censuses were carried out not in the “zero” year, as is customary in most countries of the world, but in other years. Particular attention is paid to the 2021 census, it has been postponed for one year due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

The impact of an exercise and sport intervention on cognitive function and pain among forcibly displaced individuals at risk for PTSD: a secondary analysis of the SALEEM randomized controlled trial

BackgroundIn response to the global scope of forced displacement, international organizations highlight the need of scalable solutions to support individuals’ health and integration into host societies. Exposure to high mental and physical stress perceived before, during, and after displacement can impair functional capabilities, essential for adapting to a new environment. This secondary analysis examined the impact of an exercise and sport intervention on cognitive function and pain severity among individuals living in a refugee camp in Greece.MethodsWe implemented a randomized controlled trial involving n = 142 (52.8% women) forcibly displaced individuals from Southwest Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Participants were randomly assigned to a waitlist or a 10-week co-designed exercise and sport intervention with a 1:1 allocation rate between groups and sexes. Assessments at baseline and follow-up included the Flanker task, the Oddball paradigm, pain severity via visual analog scales, and the Åstrand-Rhyming indirect test of maximal oxygen uptake. We analyzed the intervention effects using structural equation modeling.ResultsOur findings did not indicate a direct intervention effect on cognitive function or pain (p ≥ .332). However, the intervention group significantly improved cardiorespiratory fitness, ß = .17, p = .010, which was associated with faster reaction times in cognitive tasks, ß = − .22, p = .004. Moreover, there was some evidence that adherence might be linked to reduced pain severity, ß = − .14, p = .065.ConclusionsExercise and sport did not directly impact cognitive function and pain severity among a sociodemographically diverse sample living in a refugee camp, suggesting the need for complementary measures. Nevertheless, our results indicate that improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness benefit aspects of attention.Trial registrationThe study was approved by the local ethics committee of the University of Thessaly (no. 39) and registered prospectively on February 8, 2021 at the ISRCTN registry (no. 16291983).

Genomic compliance with Chargaff’s second parity rule may have originated non-adaptively, but stem-loops now function adaptively

Of Chargaff’s four rules on DNA base quantity, his second parity rule (PR-2) is the most contentious. Various biometricians (e.g., Sueoka, Lobry) regarded PR-2 compliance as a non-adaptive feature of modern genomes that could be modeled through interrelations among mutation rates. However, PR-2 compliance with stem-loop potential was considered adaptively relevant by biochemists familiar with analyses of nucleic acid structure (e.g., of Crick) and of meiotic recombination (e.g., of Kleckner). Meanwhile, other biometricians had shown that PR-2 complementarity extended beyond individual bases (1-mers) to oligonucleotides (k-mers), possibly reflecting “advantageous DNA structure” (Nussinov). An “introns early” hypothesis (Reanney, Forsdyke) had suggested a primordial nucleic acid world with recombination-mediated error-correction requiring genome-wide stem-loop potential to have evolved prior to localized intrusions of protein-encoding potential (exons). Thus, a primordial genome was equivalent to one long intron. Indeed, when assessed as the base order-dependent component (correcting for local influences of GC%), modern genes, especially when evolving rapidly under positive Darwinian selection, display high intronic stem-loop potential. This suggests forced migration from neighboring exons by competing protein-encoding potential. PR-2 compliance may have first arisen non-adaptively. Primary prototypic structures were later strengthened by their adaptive contribution to recombination. Thus, contentious views may actually be in harmony.