First-arrival Traveltime Inversion Research Articles

TTZ-SOUTH seismic experiment

The wide-angle reflection and refraction (WARR) TTZ-South transect carried out in 2018 crosses the SW region of Ukraine and the SE region of Poland. The TTZ-South profile targeted the structure of the Earth’s crust and upper mantle of the Trans-European Suture Zone, as well as the southwestern segment of the East European Craton (slope of the Ukrainian Shield). The ~550 km long profile (~230 km in Poland and ~320 km in western Ukraine) is an extension of previously realized projects in Poland, TTZ (1993) and CEL03 (2000). The deep seismic sounding study along the TTZ-South profile using TEXAN and DATA-CUBE seismic stations (320 units) made it possible to obtain high-quality seismic records from eleven shot points (six in Ukraine and five in Poland). This paper presents a smooth P wave velocity model based on first-arrival travel-time inversion using the FAST (First Arrival Seismic Tomography) code. The obtained image represents a preliminary velocity model which, according to the P wave velocities, consists of a sedimentary layer and the crystalline crust that could comprise upper, middle and lower crustal layers. The Moho interface, approximated by the 7.5 km/s isoline, is located at 45—47 km depth in the central part of the profile, shallowing to 40 and 37 km depth in the northern (Radom-Łysogуry Unit, Poland) and southern (Volyno-Podolian Monocline, Ukraine) segments of the profile, respectively. A peculiar feature of the velocity cross-section is a number of high-velocity bodies distinguished in the depth range of 10—35 km. Such high-velocity bodies were detected previously in the crust of the Radom-Łysogуry Unit. These bodies, inferred at depths of 10—35 km, could be allochthonous fragments of what was originally a single mafic body or separate mafic bodies intruded into the crust during the break-up of Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic, which was accompanied by considerable rifting. The manifestations of such magmatism are known in the NE part of the Volyno-Podolian Monocline, where the Vendian trap formation occurs at the surface.

First-arrival traveltime inversion of seismic diving waves observed on undulant surface

SUMMARY A non-iterative first-arrival traveltime inversion method (NFTI) is proposed for building smooth velocity models using seismic diving waves observed on irregular surface. The new ray and traveltime equations of diving waves propagating in smooth media with undulant observation surface are deduced. According to the proposed ray and traveltime equations, an analytical formula for determining the location of the diving-wave turning points is then derived. Taking the influence of rough topography on first-arrival traveltimes into account, the new equations for calculating the velocities at turning points are established. Based on these equations, a method is proposed to construct subsurface velocity models from the observation surface downward to the bottom using the first-arrival traveltimes in common offset gathers. Tests on smooth velocity models with rugged topography verify the validity of the established equations, and the superiority of the proposed NFTI. The limitation of the proposed method is shown by an abruptly-varying velocity model example. Finally, the NFTI is applied to solve the static correction problem of the field seismic data acquired in a mountain area in the western China. The results confirm the effectivity of the proposed NFTI.

TTZ-South seismic experiment

The wide-angle reflection and refraction (WARR) TTZ-South transect carried out in 2018 crosses the SW region of Ukraine and the SE region of Poland. The TTZ-South profile targeted the structure of the Earth’s crust and upper mantle of the Trans-European Suture Zone, as well as the southwestern segment of the East European Craton (slope of the Ukrainian Shield). The ~550 km long profile (~230 km in Poland and ~320 km in western Ukraine) is an extension of previously realized projects in Poland, TTZ (1993) and CEL03 (2000). The deep seismic sounding study along the TTZ-South profile using TEXAN and DATA-CUBE seismic stations (320 units) made it possible to obtain high-quality seismic records from eleven shot points (six in Ukraine and five in Poland). This paper presents a smooth P-wave velocity model based on first-arrival travel-time inversion using the FAST (First Arrival Seismic Tomography) code. The obtained image represents a preliminary velocity model which, according to the P -wave velocities, consists of a sedimentary layer and the crystalline crust that could comprise upper, middle and lower crustal layers. The Moho interface, approximated by the 7.5 km/s isoline, is located at 45—47 km depth in the central part of the profile, shallowing to 40 and 37 km depth in the northern (Radom-Łysogory Unit, Poland) and southern (Volyno-Podolian Monocline, Ukraine) segments of the profile, respectively. A peculiar feature of the velocity cross-section is a number of high-velocity bodies distinguished in the depth range of 10—35 km. Such high-velocity bodies were detected previously in the crust of the Radom-Łysogory Unit. These bodies, inferred at depths of 10—35 km, could be allochthonous fragments of what was originally a single mafic body or separate mafic bodies intruded into the crust during the break-up of Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic, which was accompanied by considerable rifting. The manifestations of such magmatism are known in the NE part of the Volyno-Podolian Monocline, where the Vendian trap formation occurs at the surface.

Imaging the high-temperature geothermal field at Krafla using vertical seismic profiling

Geophysical exploration and in particular active-source seismic imaging of geothermal fields is important to assess and optimize the exploitation of natural heat sources for energy production and direct use. The first multi-offset (moving-source) vertical seismic profiling (VSP) experiment over the high-temperature geothermal field in Krafla (Iceland) was carried out in spring 2014 with the aim to test whether VSP is a suitable method to map volcanic stratigraphy, fractures, dykes, steam zones and magmatic bodies at this site and for volcanic environments in general. In this study, we present a workflow for processing the sparse Krafla VSP dataset recorded with receivers in either of two boreholes. The analysis involved first-arrival traveltime inversion and seismic reflection processing. The seismic velocity model obtained by traveltime tomography reveals structural information between the two boreholes and can be linked to an existing geological model, showing that the seismic velocities are mainly controlled by lithology. The zero-offset seismic reflection data were processed into two corridor stacks. Walk-away VSP reflection data were migrated with a novel multicomponent Kirchhoff migration algorithm that includes P- and S-wave isolation to obtain separate PP, PS and SS migrated images. The reflections imaged in the corridor stacks can be linked to the main lithological units known from borehole logging information. Migrated images from the walk-away data reveal reflectors below and to the sides of the two boreholes. Considering à priori information, such as hypocenter locations from earthquake seismology studies, the reflectors can be related to changes in lithology, fault zones, dykes and possibly the top of the Krafla magma chamber. We found that VSP is potentially a useful method to image the key lithological boundaries and volcanic stratigraphy in the complex magmatic environment at Krafla, but à priori information proved to be essential to constrain the processing and interpretation of the sparse array dataset.

The use of seismic modeling for the geologic interpretation of deep seismic reflection data with low signal-to-noise ratios

We have performed a deep seismic reflection study, DACIA-PLAN, based on the data recorded along a crooked line across the southeastern Romanian Carpathians. The signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) of these data varies along the seismic profile, and its variation is considered to be an effect of the rough topography, complex subsurface geology, and varying surface conditions encountered during seismic data acquisition. The migrated time section that covers the mountainous area is clear, without visible reflections, making the geologic interpretation very difficult. We used a seismic modeling technique to explain the poor S/N of the recorded data and to generate synthetic seismic sections that can be useful for the geologic interpretation of the field seismic section (migrated time section). We used ray-tracing modeling to obtain the expected seismic expression of horizons of interest. Subsurface illumination modeling indicates that the complex subsurface geology and irregularly deployed sources and receivers are responsible for the incomplete and/or uneven illumination of the subsurface and can lead to strong amplitude variations. We then used 2.5D acoustic finite-difference modeling to analyze the effect of a crooked line on seismic wave propagation. The synthetic shot gathers prove that crooked line arrival times for reflected and head waves contain static time shifts relative to a straight line regular sampling geometry. Some geologic interfaces of interest are not well-imaged on the synthetic seismic section, and this is considered to be an effect of poor positioning during seismic data acquisition. We used the velocity model from the tomographic inversion of first-arrival traveltimes and synthetic and field crooked line deep seismic reflection data to create a structural image for the southeastern Romanian Carpathians and the Focsani Basin, which tie well with the geologic model built for this area on the basis of geologic and well data only.

Characterization of a landslide geometry using 3D seismic refraction traveltime tomography: The La Valette landslide case history

Abstract The geometry of the bedrock, internal layers and shear surfaces/bands controls the deformation pattern and the mechanisms of landslides. A challenge to progress in the forecast of landslide acceleration in terms of early-warning is therefore to characterize the 3D geometry of the unstable mass at a high level of spatial resolution, both in the horizontal and vertical directions, by integrating information from different surveying techniques. For such characterization, seismic investigations are potentially of a great interest. In the case of complex structures, the measure and the processing of seismic data need to be performed in 3D. The objective of this work is to present the development of a 3D extension of a seismic refraction traveltime tomography technique based on a Simultaneous Iterative Reconstruction Technique (SIRT). First the processing algorithm is detailed and its performance is discussed, and second an application to the La Valette complex landslide is presented. Inversion of first-arrival traveltimes produces a 3D tomogram that underlines the presence of many areas characterized by low P-wave velocity of 500–1800 m.s − 1 . These low P-wave velocity structures result from the presence of reworked blocks, surficial cracks and in-depth fracture zones. These structures seem to extend to around 25 m in depth over a 80 × 130 m area. Based on borehole geotechnical data and previous geophysical investigations, an interface corresponding to an internal slip surface can be suspected near the isovalue of 1200 m.s − 1 at a depth of − 10 to − 15 m. The stable substratum is characterized by higher values of P-wave velocity of 1800–3000 m.s − 1 . The features identified in the 3D tomogram allow to better (1) delineate the boundary between the landslide and the surrounding stable slopes, and (2) understand the morphological structures within the landslide at a hectometric scale. The integration of the 3D seismic tomography interpretation to previous geophysical acquisitions using a geostatistical approach allows to construct a 3D geometrical model of the middle and lower part of the La Valette landslide, and to estimate the volume of the unstable mass.

Laplace-domain waveform inversion versus refraction-traveltime tomography

SUMMARY Geophysicists and applied mathematicians have proposed a rich suite of long-wavelength velocity estimation algorithms to construct starting velocity models for subsequent pre-stack depth migration and inversion. Refraction-traveltime tomography derives subsurface velocity models from picked first-arrival traveltimes. In contrast, Laplace-domain waveform inversion recovers long-wavelength velocity structure using the weighted amplitudes of first and later arrivals. There are several implementations of first-arrival traveltime inversion, with most based on ray tracing, and some based on the damped monochromatic wave equation, which accurately represent simple and finite-frequency first arrivals. Computationally, Laplace-domain wavefield inversion is quite similar to refraction-traveltime tomography using damped monochromatic wavefield, but the objective functions used in inversion are radically different. As in classical ray trace-based traveltime inversion, the objective of refraction-traveltime tomography using damped monochromatic wavefield is to match the phase (traveltime) of the first arrival of each measured seismic trace. In contrast, the objective of Laplace-domain wavefield inversion is to match the weighted amplitudes of both first and later arrivals to the weighted amplitudes of the measured seismic trace. Principles of refraction-traveltime tomography were used to generate velocity models of the earth one century ago. Laplace-domain waveform inversion is a more recently introduced algorithm and has been less rigorously studied by the seismic research community, with many workers believing it be equivalent to finite-frequency first-arrival traveltime tomography. We show that Laplace-domain waveform inversion is both theoretically and empirically different from finite-frequency first-arrival traveltime tomography. Specifically, we examine the Jacobian (sensitivity) kernels used in the two inversion schemes to quantify the different sensitivities (and hence the inversion results) of the two methods. Analysing both surface responses and sensitivity results, we show that the Laplace-domain waveform inversion's sensitivity to later arrivals provides significantly improved resolution of deeper velocity structure than the first-arrival traveltime tomography. We demonstrate this capability using numerical inversion examples using a synthetic five-layer model and the synthetic BP benchmark model. Because of the similar algorithmic structure, Laplace-domain waveform inversion fits neatly as a starting velocity model pre-processing component of a larger (multi) frequency-domain wave equation inversion solution package.

Ultrashallow depth imaging of a channel stratigraphy with first-arrival traveltime inversion and prestack depth migration: A case history from Bull Creek, Oklahoma

Depth imaging in ultrashallow ([Formula: see text]) environments presents twofold challenge: (1) coda available for depth migration is very limited; and (2) conventional time processing with limited coda generally fails to estimate reliable velocity models for depth migration. We studied the combining of first-arrival traveltime inversion and prestack depth migration (PSDM) for depth imaging of ultrashallow paleochannel stratigraphy associated with the Bull Creek drainage system, Oklahoma. Restricted by a limited number of geophones (24) we acquired data for inversion and migration through two coincident profiles. The first profile for inversion has a wider survey-aperture (115-m maximum shot-receiver spacing) and consequently sparse CMP spacing (2.5 m), whereas the second profile for PSDM has denser CMP spacing (1 m) and consequently a narrower survey aperture (46-m maximum shot-receiver spacing). We also found that the velocity model from traveltime inversion of the wider-aperture data set is more preferable for depth-migration than the velocity model from time processing of the denser data set. The preferred depth image showed three episodes of incision whose chronological order is resolved through radio-carbon dating of terrace sediments. Results suggested that even with limited geophones, depth imaging of ultrashallow targets can be achieved by combining first-arrival traveltime inversion and PSDM through coincident wide- and narrow-aperture acquisitions.

Joint inversion of seismic traveltimes and gravity data on unstructured grids with application to mineral exploration

Seismic methods continue to receive interest for use in mineral exploration due to the much higher resolution potential of seismic data compared to the techniques traditionally used, namely, gravity, magnetics, resistivity, and electromagnetics. However, the complicated geology often encountered in hard-rock exploration can make data processing and interpretation difficult. Inverting seismic data jointly with a complementary data set can help overcome these difficulties and facilitate the construction of a common earth model. We considered the joint inversion of seismic first-arrival traveltimes and gravity data to recover causative slowness and density distributions. Our joint inversion algorithm differs from previous work by (1) incorporating a large suite of measures for coupling the two physical property models, (2) slowly increasing the effect of the coupling to help avoid potential convergence issues, and (3) automatically adjusting two Tikhonov tradeoff parameters to achieve a desired fit to both data sets. The coupling measures used are both compositional and structural in nature and allow the inclusion of explicitly known or implicitly assumed empirical relationships, physical property distribution information, and cross-gradient structural coupling. For any particular exploration scenario, the combination of coupling measures used should be guided by the geologic knowledge available. We performed our inversions on unstructured grids comprised of triangular cells in 2D, or tetrahedral cells in 3D, but the joint inversion methods are equally applicable to rectilinear grids. We tested our joint inversion methodology on scenarios based on the Voisey’s Bay massive sulfide deposit in Labrador, Canada. These scenarios present a challenge to the inversion of first-arrival traveltimes and we show how joint inversion with gravity data can improve recovery of the subsurface features.

Upper crustal P-wave velocity structure of Kii Peninsula, SW Japan by first-arrival traveltime inversion of the Kawachinagano-Kiwa refraction profile

SUMMARY We investigated the upper crustal P-wave velocity structure down to 5 km in the Kii Peninsula, SW Japan by a tomographic inversion of the first-arrival traveltimes from the seismic refraction experiment performed by the Research Group for Explosion Seismology (RGES) in 1988. The observations were carried out on a profile running in the N–S direction from Kawachinagano, Osaka Prefecture to Kiwa, Mie Prefecture. The profile extends for about 65 km across the major geological zones, which characterize the geological features of SW Japan. Six shots were fired and the generated seismic waves were recorded at 86 temporary observation sites. The inversion scheme was applied to 359 first-arrival times to delineate the velocity structure along the profile. In the tomographic scheme, velocity estimation was achieved by an iterative, linearized least-squares inversion. The Jacobian matrix was constructed via a finite-difference approximation by perturbing the slownesses of the cells instead of performing ray tracing. Traveltime calculations were carried out by using a fast finite-difference eikonal solver. Velocity updates were obtained by a matrix inversion algorithm using a conjugate gradient least-squares scheme. In addition, model covariance and model resolution matrices were obtained to assess the velocity image. Two low-velocity zones observed in the northern and southern parts of the profile are the most prominent features of the tomogram. The P-wave velocity structure is generally consistent with the surface geology, and the fault zones associated with the Median (MTL) and Gobo-Hagi (GHTL) tectonic lines across the peninsula.

Traveltime tomographic inversion with simultaneous static corrections — Well worth the effort

We have developed a first-arrival traveltime inversion scheme that jointly solves for seismic velocities and source and receiver static-time terms. The static-time terms are included to compensate for varying time delays introduced by the near-surface low-velocity layer that is too thin to be resolved by tomography. Results on a real data set consisting of picked first-arrival times from a seismic-reflection 2D/3D experiment in a crystalline environment show that the tomography static-time terms are very similar in values and distribution to refraction-static corrections computed using standard refraction-statics software. When applied to 3D seismic-reflection data, tomography static-time terms produce similar or more coherent seismic-reflection images compared to the images using corrections from standard refraction-static software. Furthermore, the method provides a much more detailed model of the near-surface bedrock velocity than standard software when the static-time terms are included in the inversion. Low-velocity zones in this model correlate with other geologic and geophysical data, suggesting that our method results in a reliable model. In addition to generally being required in seismic-reflection imaging, static corrections are also necessary in traveltime tomography to obtain high-fidelity velocity images of the subsurface.

Depth and morphology of reflectors from the non‐linear inversion of arrival times and waveform semblance data. Part II: modelling and interpretation of real data acquired in Southern Apennines, Italy

ABSTRACTIn order to retrieve a 2D background velocity model and to retrieve the geometry and depth of shallow crustal reflectors in the Southern Apennines thrust belt a separate inversion of first arrival traveltimes and reflected waveforms was performed. Data were collected during an active seismic experiment in 1999 by Enterprise Oil Italiana and Eni‐Agip using a global offset acquisition geometry. A total of 284 on‐land shots were recorded by 201 receivers deployed on an 18 km line oriented SW–NE in the Val D'Agri region (Southern Apennines, Italy).The two‐step procedure allows for the retrieval of a reliable velocity model by using a non‐linear tomographic inversion and reflected waveform semblance data inversion. The tomographic model shows that the P wave velocity field varies vertically from approximately 3 km/s to 6 km/s within 4 km from the Earth's surface. Moreover, at a distance of approximately 11 km along the profile, there is an abrupt increase in the velocity field. In this zone indeed, an ascent from 2 km depth to 0 km above sea level of the 5.2 km/s iso‐velocity contour can be noted. The retrieved velocity can be associated with Plio‐Pleistocene clastic deposits outcropping in the basin zone and with Mesozoic limestone deposits. The inversion of waveform semblance data shows that a P‐to‐P reflector is retrieved at a depth of approximately 2 km. This interface is deeper in the north‐eastern part of the profile, where it reaches 3 km depth and can be associated with a limestone horizon.

Geophysical investigation of a landslide: The Altındağ landslide site, İzmir (western Turkey)

A geophysical survey including electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and seismic refraction tomography (SRT) was carried out to study a landslide site in the Altındağ district of İzmir city, western Turkey. In the city, landslide is one of the causes of natural hazard, and one of the most important landslide sites is located in the Altındağ district. The ERT studies were performed along four profiles over the landslide body in the directions of N–S and E–W. A Wenner–Schlumberger configuration was used during the resistivity measurements. The SRT survey was carried out using vertical geophones along a profile coincident with one of N–S trending resistivity profiles. Both the resistivity and the seismic data sets were processed by least-squares inversion techniques. In the first-arrival traveltime inversion of the surface refraction data, a method which is not based on ray tracing was used. Instead, the method used the functional description of traveltimes to generate the Jacobian and this matrix was calculated by using a finite-difference approximation based on the perturbation of the cell slownesses. Traveltime calculations were performed by an eikonal solver. Each technique produced useful results on the internal structure of the landslide, physical properties of the landslide material and sliding surface geometry. The landslide material was characterized by low resistivity and low seismic velocity. The resistivity results also indicated the zones associated with the high water and clay contents within the landslide mass. A layer of consolidated clastic rocks was considered to be the landslide bedrock, and it was represented by relatively high (moderate) resistivity and high velocity. Integrated interpretation of the resistivity and the seismic refraction data along one of N–S trending profiles helped us identify the geometry of the failure surface and the changes in the thickness of the landslide material. An undulating sliding surface is present along that profile and the landslide material gets thicker in the middle and the northern parts (the toe area) of the profile. Moreover, the water content is thought to have a key role in the mass movement in the landslide site.

Upper-crustal structure beneath the Strait of Georgia, Southwest British Columbia

We present a new three-dimensional (3-D) P-wave velocity model for the upper-crustal structure beneath the Strait of Georgia, southwestern British Columbia based on non-linear tomographic inversion of wide-angle seismic refraction data. Our study, part of the Georgia Basin Geohazards Initiative (GBGI) is primarily aimed at mapping the depth of the Cenozoic sedimentary basin and delineating the near-surface crustal faults associated with recent seismic activities (e.g. M = 4.6 in 1997 and M = 5.0 in 1975) in the region. Joint inversion of first-arrival traveltimes from the 1998 Seismic Hazards Investigation in Puget Sound (SHIPS) and the 2002 Georgia Basin experiment provides a high-resolution velocity model of the subsurface to a depth of ∼7 km. In the southcentral Georgia Basin, sedimentary rocks of the Cretaceous Nanaimo Group and early Tertiary rocks have seismic velocities between 3.0 and 5.5 km s−1. The basin thickness increases from north to south with a maximum thickness of 7 (±1) km (depth to velocities of 5.5 km s−1) at the southeast end of the strait. The underlying basement rocks, probably representing the Wrangellia terrane, have velocities of 5.5–6.5 km s−1 with considerable lateral variation. Our tomographic model reveals that the Strait of Georgia is underlain by a fault-bounded block within the central Georgia Basin. It also shows a correlation between microearthquakes and areas of rapid change in basin thickness. The 1997/1975 earthquakes are located near a northeast-trending hinge line where the thicknesses of sedimentary rocks increase rapidly to the southeast. Given its association with instrumentally recorded, moderate sized earthquakes, we infer that the hinge region is cored by an active fault that we informally name the Gabriola Island fault. A northwest-trending, southwest dipping velocity discontinuity along the eastern side of Vancouver Island correlates spatially with the surface expression of the Outer Island fault. The Outer Island fault as mapped in our seismic tomography model is a thrust fault that projects directly into the Lummi Island fault, suggesting that they are related structures forming a fault system that is continuous for nearly 90 km. Together, these inferred thrust faults may account for at least a portion of the basement uplift at the San Juan Islands.

Imaging the upper part of the Red Lake greenstone belt, northwestern Ontario, with 3-D traveltime tomography

Seismic reflection line 2B was shot across the Archean Red Lake greenstone belt and Sydney Lake fault zone that marks the northern boundary of the English River metasedimentary belt, as part of the Western Superior Lithoprobe transect. Three-dimensional tomographic inversion of first arrival traveltimes recorded in this survey delineate the subsurface to depths as great as 1.5 km around this crooked two-dimensional seismic line. Within the Red Lake greenstone belt, P-wave velocities of 6.2–7.0 km s–1 occur at 500 m depth in the Mesoarchean Balmer assemblage, clearly distinguishable from the lower velocities of 5.1–6.1 km s–1 of the Neoarchean Confederation assemblage. Although the overall range of velocities in the metasedimentary rocks of the English River subprovince is similar to that found in the Confederation assemblage, lower velocities of 5.1–5.4 km s–1 are found in the upper 300 m of the metasedimentary rocks. In particular, two 2–3 km wide, east-northeast-striking zones of low velocity are associated with the Sydney Lake fault zone and the Pakwash Lake fault zone. Correlation of the velocities with the coincident reflection section suggests that these two faults delineate a fault-bounded block in the hanging wall of a more northerly fault zone that crops out within the Uchi subprovince. Anomalous regions of low velocity, which occur at the boundary between the Confederation and Balmer assemblages, and within the Balmer assemblage, may also be related to shear zones that have minimal near-surface expression, felsic lithologies, or hydrothermal alteration of the basalts.

Null-space and statistical significance of first-arrival traveltime inversion

SUMMARY The strong uncertainty inherent in the traveltime inversion of first arrivals from surface sources is usually removed by using a priori constraints or regularization. This leads to the null-space (data-independent model variability) being inadequately sampled, and consequently, model uncertainties may be underestimated in traditional (such as checkerboard) resolution tests. To measure the full null-space model uncertainties, we use unconstrained Monte Carlo inversion and examine the statistics of the resulting model ensembles. In an application to 1-D firstarrival traveltime inversion, the τ ‐p method is used to build a set of models that are equivalent to the IASP91 model within small, ∼0.02 per cent, time deviations. The resulting velocity variances are much larger, ∼2‐3 per cent within the regions above the mantle discontinuities, and are interpreted as being due to the null-space. Depth-variant depth averaging is required for constraining the velocities within meaningful bounds, and the averaging scalelength could also be used as a measure of depth resolution. Velocity variances show structure-dependent, negative correlation with the depth-averaging scalelength. Neither the smoothest (Herglotz‐ Wiechert) nor the mean velocity-depth functions reproduce the discontinuities in the IASP91 model; however, the discontinuities can be identified by the increased null-space velocity (co-)variances. Although derived for a 1-D case, the above conclusions also relate to higher dimensions.

3‐D crustal velocity structure at the rift tip in the Western Woodlark Basin

We present a three‐dimensional (3‐D) crustal velocity model for part of the western Woodlark Basin in the SW Pacific, where rifting of a continental arc transitions to seafloor spreading. Velocities to ∼14 km depth are constrained by regularized inversion of first arrival traveltimes recorded at 14 ocean bottom instruments from a network of airgun profiles within an 80 km × 80 km area. The 3‐D velocity model images the axis and flanks of the rift basin adjacent to the westernmost spreading segment. Velocity contours that dip north at ∼10° parallel seismic reflectors from within a thick ophiolitic basement. High velocities (7.5 km/s) at the base of our model and preliminary analysis of earthquake P‐wave arrival times are consistent with an average crustal thickness of 15–20 km. Anomalously shallow upper mantle (8 km/s) velocities occur 6 km south of the spreading center at a depth of 3 km below the seafloor, and in the western part of the model, ∼30 km east of the D'Entrecasteaux Islands, at a depth of 6 km below the seafloor.

A comparison of forward modeling and inversion of seismic first arrivals over the Kapuskasing Uplift

Abstract A comparison has been made between the results of trial-and-error forward modeling and a tomographic inversion of first-arrival travel times from a reversed seismic refraction profile across the Kapuskasing Uplift, Northern Ontario. The data were collected as part of a crustal scale experiment and were originally interpreted using forward modeling with synthetic seismograms. The original analysis, utilizing refracted arrivals, imaged a high-velocity anomaly (6.5 to 6.6 km / sec) beneath the Chapleau block of the Kapuskasing Uplift that extended to 17 to 20 km depth with a dip of 15 ± 2°. Based on the surface geological exposures, this dipping anomaly was interpreted as a zone of granulites up-thrust from the mid-crust in early Proterozoic times. To test the significance of this anomaly, a tomographic inversion was performed on the first arrivals from the profile. The inversion results corroborate the main features of the original velocity model; a high-velocity anomaly (6.5 to 6.6 km / sec) at the surface in the granulite zone flanked by lower velocities (6.0 to 6.1 km / sec) in the Wawa terrane to the west and (6.2 to 6.3 km / sec) in the Abitibi belt to the east. However, resolution analysis and test inversions indicate that the first-arrival travel times alone can only image the western edge of the dipping high velocity anomaly to less than 10 km depth. At depths greater than 7.5 to 10 km in the west and ∼ 2.5 km in the east, model resolution significantly deteriorates and the sensitivity of the final velocities to the starting model used for inversion increases. Resolution analysis also demonstrates how additional intermediate shot points or increased aperture would have improved resolution of the anomaly at greater depth, emphasizing the importance of performing resolution analysis during the planning stages of refraction experiments.