Intolerance Of Ambiguity Research Articles

Modeling Maher's Attribution Theory of Delusions as a Cusp Catastrophe

Maher's (1974, 1988) attribution theory of delusions was reformulated as a cusp catastrophe model and tested using 193 percipients' paranormal beliefs, paranormal experiences, and fear of the paranormal as measured by Kumar et al.'s (1994) Anomalous Experiences Inventory, and their tolerance of ambiguity as measured by McDonald's (1970) AT-20. The magnitude of the difference between percipients' fear and belief was used as the dependent variables, whereas experience and tolerance of ambiguity were used as asymmetry and bifurcation variables, respectively. Using the GEMCAT II software it was shown that this cusp provided a superior fit to the data than competing linear, fold, and cusp models. Consistent with Maher's formulation, two basic states were found to exist: one in which fear dominates belief, and a second in which belief dominates fear. Further, fear of the paranormal increased with greater intolerance of ambiguity while belief decreased with increasing tolerance. The model explains why paranormal beliefs are resistant to change in the face of counterargument or contradictory evidence.

The Need for Closure and the Need for Structure: Interrelationships, Correlates, and Outcomes

In this study, the authors administered the Need for Closure Scale (A. W. Kruglanski, D. M. Webster, & A. Klem, 1993) and the Personal Need for Structure Scale (as cited in S. L. Neuberg & J. T. Newsom, 1993) to 2 samples of undergraduates, to assess the reliability and validity of these measures. Scores on both scales as well as their sub-scales were internally consistent. As was found in prior investigations, no sex differences were obtained in this study for scores on these 2 personality measures. Additionally, age of the respondents was independent of responses to the Need for Closure Scale and the Personal Need for Structure Scale. In contrast to some prior studies but consistent with recent other investigations, scores from these 2 measures were strongly correlated with one another. Unlike previous studies, scores on indices of the need for closure and of the personal need for structure were strongly related to scores on measures of dogmatism and intolerance of ambiguity. Implications for future research concerning these scales are discussed.

Thinking styles, schizotypal traits and anomalous experiences

This study investigated the relationship between thinking styles (rational versus intuitive), schizotypal traits, intolerance of ambiguity, self-efficacy and anomalous experiences (self-reported paranormal abilities, experiences, beliefs) in a sample of university students ( N=374, 206 females and 168 males). Correlational analyses showed that the anomalous experiences were closely related to schizotypal traits and thinking styles. A cluster analysis revealed four types of thinking styles: rational (high rational and low intuitive), intuitive (high intuitive and low rational), complementary (high rational and high intuitive) and poor (low rational and low intuitive). Participants with a complementary thinking style showed higher scores on the anomalous experiences, on the cognitive–perceptual aspects of schizotypy and self-efficacy than members of the other groups. Intuitive thinkers scored highest on interpersonal aspects of schizotypy and interpersonal intolerance of ambiguity. Further research should take into account the influence of thinking processes on the underlying mechanisms of schizotypy and the paranormal.

Intolerance of Ambiguity and Political Orientation Among Israeli University Students

The relation between political orientation and cognitive style—as measured by intolerance of ambiguity—among Israeli university students was explored. A Hebrew translation of Budner's Intolerance of Ambiguity Scale was pretested with 39 students, a political orientation test was developed by the authors and pretested with 24 other students, and 159 students subsequently completed both measures. The data lend support to the rigidity-of-the-right hypothesis over the ideologue hypothesis. As an alternative, a value-pluralism model, in which the relation between cognitive style and political orientation depends on the values underlying the central issue that defines the left-right continuum, could account for the current findings and provide rich alternatives to either the rigidity-of-the-right or the ideologue hypothesis.

Social Conservatism and Intolerance of Ambiguity

A new 12-item scale of social conservatism was associated with an apparent measure of intolerance of ambiguity among 62 English undergraduate students.

Interactions of Intolerance of Ambiguity and of Contingent Liability on Auditors' Avoidance of Litigation

90 practicing auditors were given identical sets of financial statements except for the amount of contingent liability which was varied independently over three amounts of $50,000, $500,000, and $1 million Based on this information, they were to indicate on a 7-point rating scale anchored by 1 (little likelihood) to 7 (great likelihood), their likelihood of issuing an unqualified, i.e., clean, report. 65 useable responses were received. In accordance with the theory of tolerance for ambiguity, it was hypothesized that auditors who were rated on the MacDonald AT-20 scale as being intolerant of ambiguity would have less preference for an unqualified audit report at higher amounts of contingent liability than auditors who were rated as being tolerant of ambiguity. A between-subjects analysis of variance showed that the auditors' tolerance for ambiguity interacted with different amounts of contingent liability to affect the likelihood of their issuing an unqualified report. Implications in terms of auditors' avoidance of litigation by the client are also discussed.

Whose Humdrum? A Rejoinder to Meloen

Jos Meloen and I have presumably studied the same literature, yet we disagree radically about its scientific and political value. How can this be the case? Are the facts not before us? According to the rhetoric of enquiry, such disagreement is to be expected and should be the object of analysis. In this rejoinder to Meloen I will offer an account of our difference of opinion. I suggest that facts and fields of study are always shaped rhetorically and are partially dependent on the perspective of the researcher. This will provide a framework for reevaluating the scientific and political value of the theory of the authoritarian personality. First, however, it is necessary to reconsider Meloen's explanation for our differences. Meloen explains this disagreement by opposing truth and error. He apparently represents the truthful state of affairs, whereas my paper is replete with bias. This bias he identifies in two features of my argument: first, I have selected theories for discussion arbitrarily in order to strengthen my case; and second, that I just don't know the literature, and so misrepresent even those theories which I have arbitrarily selected. Regarding the first element of bias, apparently I have included theories which I should not have, and omitted theories which I should have discussed. Underlying this apparent arbitrary selection of theories is my focus on cognition which was hardly used by Adorno et al. (1950). Meloen is correct, of course, to claim that Adorno et al. focused primarily on emotional factors. However, these emotional factors were intimately related to cognitive constructs such as intolerance of ambiguity (see Frenkel-Brunswik, 1949, who formulated some of the first personality variables of the [authoritarian personality] research (Horkheimer, 1950, p. xii)). Moreover, the cognitive features of authoritarianism have been investigated in numerous studies (including, among many others, Christie, 1993; Davids, 1955; Davids & Eriksen, 1957; Harvey, 1963; Kelman & Barklay, 1963; Martin, 1954; McAllister & Anderson, 1985; Millon, 1957; O'Connor, 1952; Steiner & Johnson, 1963; Vannoy, 1965; White et al., 1965).

The Influence of Outcome Effects, Decision Aid Usage, and Intolerance of Ambiguity on Evaluations of Professional Audit Judgement

Auditors' performance is evaluated in a variety of contexts and at various time intervals following professional conduct. Outcome knowledge is often available prior to evaluation, and accordingly, evaluations may reflect hindsight biases. The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of outcome knowledge on evaluations of professional audit judgement. Specifically, we hypothesize that outcome effects will be altered by two factors: (1) conduct that involves the incomplete use (truncated application) of available decision aids and (2) the degree to which evaluators exhibit intolerance of ambiguity. We also examined the interaction of these two factors. Results of our experiment confirmed our hypotheses regarding the influence of decision aid usage and individuals' intolerance of ambiguity on outcome effects. Negative, non‐normative outcome effects were strongest when available analytical procedures decision aids were only partially utilized; participants who were intolerant of ambiguity were subject to hindsight biases, while tolerant subjects were not. Implications are discussed in terms relating to (internal) performance evaluations and extensions to external legal liability.

Facing Technological Risks: The Importance of Individual Differences

Survey research on risk assessment has emphasized risk characteristics, such as uncontrollability of exposure or the catastrophic potential of hazards. This study extends past research by examining the importance of individual difference factors. Two hundred forty-nine respondents assessed the risk characteristics associated with various technologies. In addition, respondents rated perceived risk and personal worry and completed the Desirability of Control Scale and Ambiguity Intolerance Measure. Results indicated that perceived risk and worry were related to individual difference variables and to some risk characteristics as well as to interactions among these variables. Perceived risk and worry differentially predicted the desire for regulations and willingness to take action to decrease the risk associated with technological hazards.

The Influence of Outcome Effects, Decision Aid Usage, and Intolerance of Ambiguity on Evaluations of Professional Audit Judgement

Auditors' performance is evaluated in a variety of contexts and at various time intervals following professional conduct. Outcome knowledge is often available prior to evaluation, and accordingly, evaluations may reflect hindsight biases. The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of outcome knowledge on evaluations of professional audit judgement. Specifically, we hypothesize that outcome effects will be altered by two factors: (1) conduct that involves the incomplete use (truncated application) of available decision aids and (2) the degree to which evaluators exhibit intolerance of ambiguity. We also examined the interaction of these two factors. Results of our experiment confirmed our hypotheses regarding the influence of decision aid usage and individuals' intolerance of ambiguity on outcome effects. Negative, non-normative outcome effects were strongest when available analytical procedures decision aids were only partially utilized; participants who were intolerant of ambiguity were subject to hindsight biases, while tolerant subjects were not. Implications are discussed in terms relating to (internal) performance evaluations and extensions to external legal liability.

Personality and Endogenous/Major Depression: An Empirical Approach to Typus melancholicus

The concept of typus melancholicus (TM) was shaped by Tellenbach by means of phenomenological analysis in order to describe the premorbid and intermorbid personality of endogenous depressives. In this paper, the authors delineate the core properties of TM-i.e. orderliness, conscientiousness, norm orientation and intolerance of ambiguity-as a point of departure for empirical-statistical research. Qualitative and quantitative studies inquiring the characteristics of TM are reviewed in order to point out its well-established personality dimensions. Alternating methodological steps are proposed, combining phenomenological hypotheses with empirical-statistical tests (hermeneutic complementarity) in order to validate and differentiate the TM concept. The question whether TM should be considered as a personality disorder and the ethical attitude of subsiding appreciation of the TM in different generations of psychiatrists are discussed. It is emphasized that the TM concept brings otherwise unsystematized observations of depressives' intermorbid personality features into a coherent theoretical framework.

Den personlige flertydighedsintolerance:—standarter, baggrundsvariabler og betydningen for holdningen til flygtninge og fremmede

(1997). The personal intolerance of ambiguity: Standards, background variables and its influence on attitudes towards foreigners and refugees. Nordisk Psykologi: Vol. 49, No. 1, pp. 22-34.

Risk, Ambiguity, and Decision Choice: Some Additional Evidence*

ABSTRACTThis paper extends prior research by jointly assessing the roles of risk attitude and tolerance for ambiguity in predicting choice. An experiment examined the effects of these variables on decisions made in four different scenarios. The four scenarios (treatment combinations) were generated by manipulating risk and ambiguity into two levels (high and low). The context was defined in terms of a sample size selection problem. The second issue explored was the effect of attitudes toward risk and ambiguity on decision confidence.The results indicate that (1) both risk attitude and ambiguity intolerance determined choice behavior, (2) the roles of these individual attitudes depend on the levels of the two treatment variables of risk and ambiguity, (3) the presence of ambiguity accentuates the perception of risk in individual subjects, and (4) decision makers who are less risk averse, and have more tolerance for ambiguity, display greater confidence in their choice. The paper discusses some of the managerial implications of the results.

Economic Nationalism: Conceptual and Empirical Development

To the extent that economic security is seen as a more salient concern than military security in the post-Cold War era, economic nationalism becomes an increasingly critical component of nationalistic sentiment. The potential for zero-sum orientations regarding international economic relations to constrain and disrupt the flow of goods, services, capital, and information across national borders is quite evident. Through measurement of economic nationalism at the individual level, this study links support for nationalistic economic policies with other measures of national and international orientation. The readiness to support nationalist economic policy is a function of the perceived economic threat posed by foreign competition. Economic nationalism is linked with personal job insecurity, authoritarianism, and intolerance ofambiguity. Economic nationalism is alsofound to be negatively related to individual cosmopolitanism.

Premorbid personality aspects in mood and schizophrenic disorders

This study examines premorbid personality traits from a self-reported and family-reported perspective on a group of unipolar major depression (n = 27), bipolar (n = 21), and schizophrenic (n = 16) recovered inpatients, and a control group (n = 21). Using the Munich Personality Test (MP-T Scales) of von Zerssen for self-reporting and family-reporting personality traits, and the Kischkel scale for the measurement of “intolerance of ambiguity,” we found more “rigidity,” less “esoteric tendencies,” and more “intolerance of ambiguity” patng unipolar depressive patients. Schizophrenic patients showed more esoteric tendencies and less “extraversion.” Results confirm the hypothesis supported by many authors regarding a particular personality structure in unipolar major depression characterized by ridigity and ambiguity intolerance. This personality pattern for unipolar depressives seems to be different from the depressive personality disorder proposed by DSM-IV. Schizophrenic individuals differ by means of their self- and family-reported extraversion. Clinical and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.

Tolerance of ambiguity and fear of the paranormal.

Houran, et al's model for haunting phenomena predicts that fear of "paranormal phenomena" is associated with intolerance of ambiguity. Consistent with this prediction, ratings by 86 undergraduates (14 men and 72 women) showed a correlation of 33 between the scores on the Anomalous Experiences Inventory and the Rydell Rosen Ambiguity Tolerance Scale.

Household store brand proneness: A framework

Store brands play an important role in retail grocery strategy. Yet, little recent research has examined factors thought to influence the selection of store brands. This paper augments prior research by building an integrated framework within which to view private brand proneness. Factors found to influence store brand proneness included familiarity with store brands, the extent to which consumers rely on extrinsic cues such as price and packaging to judge product quality, intolerance for ambiguity, perceived quality variation between national and store brand products, perceived risk, perceived value for money, income and family size. The results suggest that consumers' negative perceptions of store brands are driven primarily by the poor quality image of these products. Implications for marketing strategy are presented.

Relationship between humor and proposed punishment for crimes: Beware of humorous people

It was hypothesized that appreciation of the structural basis and of sexual content in humor is related to punitiveness in different ways. Sixty-eight male subjects served as lay judges and stipulated what would be the just minimum and maximum punishment of committing one of 25 criminal acts and filled in scales relating to humor appreciation, conservatism, dogmatism, and intolerance of ambiguity. Funniness of incongruity-resolution correlated positively with minimum and maximum punishment. Aversiveness of nonsense humor correlated positively with minimum punishment only. Appreciation of sexual content in humor correlates negatively with the extent of demanded punishment for rape but not for other sex-related crimes. Personality scales were predictive of the extent of punishment but to a lesser extent than humor appreciation.

Intolerance of Ambiguity and the Decision to Form an Alliance

In an experimental design, when a firm's reputation was manipulated and its reputation was negative or mixed, high tolerance of ambiguity will increase the decision-maker's propensity to engage in an alliance.

Integration as Integration: Tolerance of Ambiguity and the Integrative Process at the Undergraduate Level

Intolerance of ambiguity is described as an impediment to effective integration. A bidirectional relationship between personal wholeness and the integrative process is outlined, and implications are drawn for the teaching of integration at the undergraduate level. These recommendations are illustrated by vignettes from the authors’ undergraduate experiences.