A fundamental rethinking of the current global trade architecture is critical to support those who have historically been left behind by globalization – developing and least developed countries (LDCs), small businesses, women and indigenous communities. The rise of digital trade holds the potential to enable developmental leapfrogging and to serve as a transformative tool for addressing existing economic inequalities. However, as international digital trade lawmaking continues to advance primarily through bilateral, regional and plurilateral platforms, the digital divide is only deepening at an alarming pace. This article seeks to revisit international digital trade lawmaking from a development lens and to propose several forward-looking ideas on placing development at the heart of future multilateral digital trade lawmaking. It begins by briefly examining the concept and historical trajectory of the development agenda within the post-World War II international trade law framework. It then provides a comprehensive examination of how and to what extent development priorities are reflected in existing digital trade agreements. By identifying critical shortcomings in the existing international digital trade law regime, this article offers reform proposals and forward-looking strategies to mainstream development into future international digital trade rulemaking, especially within the auspices of the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Cestode infestations in cultured fish have resulted in significant economic problems associated with international trade. Pharmacological treatments containing albendazole (ABZ) represent a promising alternative for controlling these infestations. This study evaluated the invitro efficacy of ABZ against the metacestode Parvitaenia cochlearii, a parasite of the Pacific fat sleeper (Dormitator latifrons), by exposing the parasites to different concentrations (200, 600, 800, and 1000 mg/L). The median lethal concentration (LC50) was determined at 10 and 15 min of exposure. Results showed that ABZ was 100% effective in killing P. cochlearii, achieving complete mortality at 15 min with a concentration of 600 mg/L, and at 30 min with 200 mg/L. The LC50 value decreased over time, with 618.91 mg/L at 10 min and 260.32 mg/L at 15 min, indicating a cumulative effect of ABZ on metacestode tissues. In conclusion, ABZ is an effective treatment against cestode infestations, and further evaluation under experimental and commercial scales is recommended to establish control protocols in aquaculture systems.

This research is divided in two papers. The first paper explains how Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) have brought enormous advantages to farmers, as products can be more resistance to pests and droughts. Some countries have raised concerns regarding their use. Particularly, this paper analyses the import ban on GMO approved by Mexico (which applies only to GM corn) and Peru (which applies to all type of GM seeds and animals). These domestic measures affect international trade, as companies are unable to export certain types of GMO to Mexico and Peru. Hence, this first paper focuses on the emergence of GMO in human history and its relevance to guarantee food security and to boost international trade. Additionally, it explains some of the concerns GMO have brought. Thus, the loss of cultural heritage, the risk on food safety and the impact on biodiversity, arguments raised by Peru and Mexico to support their GMO regulation, are covered. Finally, Peru’s and Mexico’s regulation are explained as well as the current situation of these trade measures. The second paper focuses on the legal compatibility of the import bans on GMO approved by Peru and Mexico under the law of the World Trade Organization (WTO).div/div

This paper examines the interpretation and application of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Article XXI(b)(ii) in the context of export controls on dual-use items, a topic of increasing importance as international export control regimes grapple with ambiguities in defining the scope of such measures. While export controls are legitimate when addressing genuine security threats, their exploitation for economic advantage undermines World Trade Organization (WTO) principles. By focusing on the underexplored GATT Article XXI(b)(ii), this study provides a foundation for assessing the legality of dual-use export controls and proposes standards of proof that clarify the level of evidence required to establish facts under the burden of proof. The paper advocates for a balanced approach that acknowledges the sensitivity of security exceptions while mitigating the risk of abuse. It further emphasizes the role of multilateralism in maintaining the integrity of international trade law amidst escalating geopolitical tensions.

The Revised Kyoto Convention (RKC), adopted by the World Customs Organization (WCO) in 1973 and subsequently amended in 1999, is an international legal instrument designed to streamline and standardize customs procedures and techniques across the globe. More than just a set of rules, it provides a blueprint for customs administrations worldwide to modernize their processes and operational frameworks in line with international best practices. This harmonization creates a shared understanding of customs processes, much like a common language which makes it easier for businesses involved in cross-border trade to understand and navigate regulations in the markets where they export. This, in turn, facilitates international trade, streamlines the flow of international commerce and lowers the costs associated with transactions, ultimately contributing to economic growth. This article outlines the RKC structure with a central focus is on Standard 23 within Chapter 1 of Specific Annex H, which advocates for the application of a principle of proportionality in determining penalties related to customs offenses. It suggests that the severity of the penalty must be commensurate to the gravity of the violation, investigating how this principle has influenced international and regional instruments, specifically the World Trade Organization’s Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA) and the European Union (EU) Customs Code.

The globalization of supply chains and the rise of digital technologies have made cross-border data flows central to international trade law. At the same time, growing perceptions of data as a national security concern – commonly referred to as ‘data securitization’ – have led states to adopt restrictive measures, including cross-border data flow regulations and local storage or processing requirements. This article examines how international trade law can and should address such measures and the balance it strikes between facilitating data flows and safeguarding national security. It first surveys national approaches to restricting cross-border transfers, highlighting both divergences and common patterns in the regulation of personal and non-personal data. It then analyses exceptions in preferential trade agreements (PTAs), focusing on Essential Security Interests (ESI) and Legitimate Public Policy Objective (LPPO) exceptions. The analysis shows that while these exceptions take different forms, each faces certain limitations, reflecting an inherent trade-off between respecting states’ discretion to safeguard security interests and ensuring predictability in trade relations. To address these limitations, the article proposes avenues for international cooperation: enhancing regulatory transparency, ensuring legitimacy and effectiveness of government access to privately held data, and developing shared understandings of national security concerns and data governance measures. By combining legal safeguards with cooperative frameworks, international trade law can better reconcile the tension between safeguarding security and enabling cross-border data flows.

The Joint Committee for Traceability in Laboratory Medicine (JCTLM) supports worldwide equivalence and comparability of measurement results in laboratory medicine to improve health care and facilitate national and international trade in in vitro diagnostic (IVD) medical devices. The 2025 biennial members and stakeholders' workshop focused on the expectations and benefits of harmonized results among medical laboratories, as well as the challenges associated with achieving this goal. Harmonization of results from end-user IVD measurement procedures (IVD-MPs) can be achieved by applying the principles of metrological traceability; however, there are several historical examples of standardization efforts that did not achieve the required level of harmonization. The reasons for these failures can be found in various elements of the calibration hierarchy including: a) an unclear definition of the measurand, b) differences in selectivity of the IVD-MPs, c) issues with the commutability characteristics of secondary certified reference materials (CRM), d) inconsistencies in handling of CRMs to prepare calibrators, and e) lack of adoption and implementation by the IVD manufacturers. The lack of harmonized results can lead to confusion, treatment delays, errors in medical decisions, and increased healthcare costs. There are still assays in common use that lack metrological traceability because they lack CRMs, reference method procedures (RMPs), and/or reference method services (RMSs). Producing and maintaining reference measurement system components is complex and expensive. There are multiple regulatory frameworks and requirements that IVD manufacturers must meet worldwide. There is a vital role for External Quality Assessment (EQA) providers to assess the agreement status of results across different IVD-MPs and identify any changes in their equivalence. However, EQA materials must be commutable with clinical samples for each of the examined IVD-MDs for results to reflect the status of harmonization of clinical sample results. The future will need leadership and cooperation between bodies such as JCTLM, the International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC), and IVD manufacturers.

In recent years, as the Sino-US trade war has intensified, the economic and trade relationship between the two countries has undergone significant changes. Given this, this paper examines the impact of trade frictions on developing countries' trade flows from the perspectives of tariff barriers and trade policy uncertainty. First, it examines whether developing countries' exports to the United States change after the onset of trade frictions (i.e., the US import substitution effect). Second, it examines whether developing countries' exports to China change after the onset of trade frictions (i.e., the Chinese export deflection effect). An empirical analysis based on bilateral trade data from 2013 to 2023 shows that trade frictions significantly increase developing countries' exports to the United States, demonstrating a clear import substitution effect. However, imports from China do not increase significantly, indicating a nonsignificant Chinese export deflection effect. Finally, the study proposes policy recommendations for developing countries to address the changing international trade environment, such as promoting the diversification of export markets and products and enhancing supply chain autonomy.

Purpose This study assesses the moderating and threshold impact of environmental tax and institutional quality on enhancing the international trade capabilities of economies in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Design/methodology/approach The study employed the system generalised method of moments and a dynamic threshold estimation technique on annual panel data from 24 emerging economies in SSA between the period 2010 and 2024. Findings The study revealed that environmental taxation has a nonlinear impact on trade in sub-Saharan Africa, turning from negative to positive only when institutional quality surpasses specific thresholds. Political stability, regulatory quality and government effectiveness significantly condition whether environmental taxes hinder or enhance trade. Research limitations/implications The study recommends that policymakers in SSA align environmental tax reforms with institutional strengthening. Reforms should be sequenced based on governance capacity, supported by readiness diagnostics and coordinated regionally to avoid emissions leakage and protect trade competitiveness. Originality/value This study is the first to apply a threshold framework to environmental taxation and trade in SSA, identifying governance tipping points. It moves beyond conventional models by treating institutional quality not as a control but as a structural determinant of policy success, offering a new lens on sustainable trade transitions in developing economies.

This study examines the longevity of Ethiopia's trade partnerships duration and its determinants using a survival analysis. While the existing literature extensively studies the determinants of trade volume, this study uniquely investigates how long bilateral trade ties persist and what determines their duration, with particular emphasis on Ethiopia. Employing bilateral export data from 1997 to 2023, combined with gravity-based variables and rich institutional and macroeconomic indicators, the analysis applies random effect parametric survival estimates to capture the timing and risk of trade relationship dissolution. We find that initial export volumes and institutional quality significantly enhance trade longevity, Geographic proximity exhibits significant effects: shared borders are associated with longer trade durations, whereas longer distance shortens the duration. While Ethiopia's own-economic size correlates with shorter trade survival, larger partner economies tend to sustain longer trade relationships. Moreover, regional dynamics reveal that Sub-Saharan African partners demonstrate greater persistence in trade links. The findings carry important policy implications for fostering sustainable trade growth and economic resilience in Ethiopia and comparable economies, underscoring the importance of strengthening institutions, upgrading infrastructure, and cultivating cooperative regional arrangements to reinforce durable trade partnerships.

Invasive alien species can significantly impact the environment, public health, and food production. Identifying high-risk areas is essential for implementing preventive measures, especially for species with several traits linked to invasive behavior, such as Spodoptera litura (F.). This study aimed to predict the potential global distribution of S. litura and assess its implications for five major crops in Brazil. Climatic suitability was estimated using the MaxEnt correlative algorithm, with fifty models generated by varying feature classes and regularization multiplier values. The best model selected based on the corrected Akaike Information Criterion demonstrated strong predictive performance, with high Area Under the Curve (AUCtrain = 0.92, AUCtest = 0.86) and Continuous Boyce Index (CBItrain = 0.95, CBItest = 0.75) values. Predictions identified highly and moderately suitable areas for S. litura across all continents, including regions where the species has not yet been recorded, such as the Neotropics. In Brazil, highly suitable areas include the mid-west, northeastern coast, and the southeastern and southern regions. Among the assessed crops, citrus (97.2%) had the greatest overlap with the suitable range for S. litura, followed by rice (94.2%), coffee (90.3%), and soybean (72.8%). These findings suggest that S. litura could cause significant economic damage if introduced and spread in Brazil. The results of this study can inform the development of preventive measures against the introduction and spread of this important agricultural pest, especially on high-risk areas near airports and seaports with intense international trade and in proximity to host crops.

The article analyzes the state and dynamics of China’s service sector develop­ ment as a key factor in enhancing the country’s international competitiveness. The study examines the parameters of China’s participation in international trade in services, which still lags significantly behind trade in goods. Nevertheless, the country places great emphasis on trade in services for a range of strategic, economic, and political reasons. China’s WTO commitments stimulated reforms aimed at market liberalization and attracting foreign direct investment. The country’s current specialization is concentrated in sectors such as construction, ICT, and transport. However, China tries to transit towards the export of higher value-added services, especially digital ones. The authors conclude that China’s further progress in international trade in services will be determined by the suc­ cessful development of its financial and tourism sectors, as well as its ability to enhance competitiveness in high-tech segments.

Recently, Indian economy has experienced strong Foreign investment flows through Foreign Direct Investment(FDI) and Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI). It's long term trend highlighted economy has received $748.78 billion through FDI since 2014-2025 whereas FPI has been boosted by equity market gains with total FPI asset under custody hitting $858 billion. A healthy and vibrant industrial sectors of capital markets is important for development of a nation. In the present scenario, sectors of Foreign investment in Indian economy for instance Automotive, Pharmaceuticals, Information Technology (IT), Textiles, Construction, power, equity segment and assets under custody (AUC) have attracted attention of investors to invest in these Industries particularly. This paper attempted to analyse some of sectors and their impact on Industrial Development in India by foreign investors. The present study is based on quantitative data and used secondary data of annual time series. Data has been collected from the report of Reserve Bank of India, Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT),world Bank report etc. To study the impact methods are practised such as comparative sectorial analysis, Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) and Garch model has been used to estimate volatility spillovers of FPI to sectoral output. The results indicated strong and positive long-run relationship with capital intensive, technology-based sectors hence leading to stable output growth and value addition. On the contrary, the FPI inflows showed a strong but volatile connection between FPI inflows and construction and power industries, which is highly vulnerable to market sentiment. However, it was observed from study that the investment activities in industrial sectors of FDI and FPI have had significant impact on Indian economy.

Observability of a prediction model post-deployment data drift: the case of international trade value

The global maritime industry, a critical pillar of international trade, continues to face persistent challenges in ensuring the integrity, security, and transparency of containerized cargo data, particularly during ocean transport. Traditional container tracking systems at sea often lack the reliability and resilience required to prevent data tampering, cyber threats, and operational inefficiencies. As supply chains become more complex and interconnected, the demand for robust, end-to-end data security solutions becomes more pressing. A promising technological advancement in this area is the convergence of smart containers, equipped with Internet of Things (IoT) sensors for real-time condition monitoring, and blockchain technology (BCT) for secure data validation. These IoT devices facilitate continuous tracking of critical parameters such as location, temperature, humidity, tilt, and the like. However, the data they generate remains vulnerable to cyberattacks, signal disruptions, and unauthorized alterations. Blockchain’s decentralized and tamper-evident architecture addresses these vulnerabilities by enabling secure data immutability, transparent audit trails, and enhanced stakeholder trust. Despite its potential, the practical integration of blockchain with smart container systems in maritime logistics remains largely underexplored. To bridge this gap, this paper proposes a blockchain-enabled smart container monitoring system that combines container real-time data with secure physical tracking. Furthermore, to ensure scalability and efficient in data storage, hybrid on/off-chain architecture is introduced, balancing blockchain integrity with performance and resource optimization.

ABSTRACT The evolution of international trade institutions significantly impacts firm competitiveness, requiring exporting firms to adapt to institutional changes. While some firms effectively leverage these opportunities, others struggle to do so. This study conceptualizes the institutional knowledge (IK) of exporting firms within the context of free trade agreements (FTAs) and examines its predictors and outcomes. Based on a survey of 152 exporting SMEs in South Korea’s agricultural and food sectors, this study reveals that IK facilitates greater FTA utilization, and that organizational learning capabilities (OLC) promote firms’ IK. These findings not only underscore the importance of IK for exporting SMEs to enhance competitiveness but also highlight the role of OLC in strengthening IK. Business leaders should recognize the importance of IK under dynamic trade institutional changes and advance OLC to foster internal IK. This research contributes to the international business literature by highlighting the role of IK and OLC in export competitiveness.

Abstract The concept of multiplexity describes an emerging world order in which non-western powers play an increasingly important role and US-centred western dominance is waning. Given the centrality of ‘the West’ to economic globalization since the Second World War, the geoeconomic turn and shift towards more nationally-oriented economic strategies in the 2010s and early 2020s could be considered a development that further accelerates the emergence of a less globalized and less western-centric world order. This article empirically re-examines these trends from an international political economy perspective. At odds with the deglobalization thesis, our assessment shows that across the spheres of trade, production and finance, western-led globalization continues to thrive. In terms of a redistribution of power, we find relative shifts in global economic power away from the United States—and the West more broadly—to be mostly restricted to international trade and largely concentrated towards China, whereas the West's structural power over global production and finance remains formidable. At the same time, China is rapidly catching up in some critical technologies, which in turn might account for the West's recent attempts to constrain China in its technological ambitions. From this perspective, we propose that the hidden purpose of the West's deglobalization agenda might not be a retreat from globalization, but an attempt to push back against and exclude potential rivals from the system. Hence, rather than accelerating, the geoeconomic turn may in fact be aimed at preventing a transition towards a more multiplex order.

ABSTRACT Food safety issues have attracted increasing public attention and can affect not only domestic food consumption but also international trade in agricultural products. This paper examines the impact of the 2011 lean meat powder scandal in China on pork imports. Exploiting the exogenous exposure of the scandal, we employ a difference-in-differences approach comparing China’s pork imports from economies that allow lean meat powder with those that prohibit it, thereby constructing a quasi-natural experiment. To assess robustness and address substitution concerns, we also apply the synthetic control method to construct counterfactual import trajectories. The results show that, after the scandal, pork import quantities from the treatment group declined by 24.9%, while import values fell by 35.0%. The negative impact is more pronounced and persistent for offal products associated with higher residual risks. Supplementary evidence based on information search intensity suggests that heightened public attention is associated with stronger import reductions, consistent with a trust-related transmission mechanism. From a policy perspective, the findings indicate that food safety scandals can generate lasting disruptions in international agricultural trade, underscoring the importance for exporting economies of maintaining credible food safety standards and monitoring conditions in importing economies to mitigate trade risks from food safety shocks.

International trade and climate change are among the most pressing issues confronting the global community, with their complex interplay influencing economic growth, environmental sustainability, and international relations. This research paper explores the intricate relationship between these domains, focusing on the pivotal role of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in reconciling potentially conflicting agendas. Established in 1995, the WTO has been central to regulating international trade and ensuring fair practices; however, its framework intersects with environmental policies, creating significant challenges. The primary objectives of this study are to examine the integration of trade and climate policies within the WTO framework, to identify the challenges and conflicts that arise from this intersection, and to explore potential pathways for aligning these policies. The research aims to understand how WTO jurisprudence impacts the harmonization of international trade and climate policies and to provide insights into how these conflicts might be mitigated. The study reveals that the integration of trade and climate policies presents substantial difficulties. Carbon pricing mechanisms, such as carbon taxes and emissions trading systems (ETS), often conflict with trade regulations by increasing production costs and impacting global competitiveness. High-profile WTO cases illustrate how environmental measures can be perceived as trade barriers, highlighting the tension between environmental protection and trade liberalization. Additionally, issues such as border carbon adjustments and subsidies for green technologies have shown the need for a nuanced approach that aligns trade rules with environmental objectives. The research employs a comprehensive analysis of WTO jurisprudence, including a review of landmark cases and an examination of trade and climate policies. It uses qualitative methods to assess how trade regulations intersect with environmental measures and explores both theoretical and practical aspects of policy integration. The findings underscore the necessity of reconciling trade and climate policies within the WTO framework to promote a more sustainable and equitable global future. Understanding the implications of WTO jurisprudence on these policies is crucial for policymakers, trade negotiators, and environmental advocates. The research highlights the importance of developing coherent and integrated approaches to global trade and climate governance, suggesting that the WTO has a crucial role in guiding this process by clarifying the compatibility of environmental measures with trade rules, facilitating policy dialogue, and supporting innovative solutions. Keywords: WTO Jurisprudence, International Trade, Climate Change Policies, Trade and Environment Integration and Sustainable Trade Practices.

Abstract Understanding the drivers of structural change has long been a central objective in development economics. While quantitative models that integrate multiple mechanisms into a unified framework offer valuable insights into their relative importance, this paper offers an alternative empirical perspective by highlighting and comparing the distinct impacts that different mechanisms have on other dimensions of labour market outcomes. Specifically, it examines two key forces behind labour reallocation out of agriculture: international trade and reductions in intersectoral allocation frictions. The paper shows, both theoretically and empirically, that these forces have opposite effects on unemployment. It further emphasizes that the reallocation of market shares toward more productive firms is a crucial mechanism behind the impact of trade.