Against the backdrop of deep global digital integration, the transnational nature and spatial heterogeneity of cybercrime have intensified governance challenges. This study employs a Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) model to integrate cybercrime data from 129 countries (including 12 indicators such as crime incidents, success rate, and prevention rate) from the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 2023 Global Cybersecurity Index (GCI) and the VERIS Community Database (VCDB), constructing a three-dimensional analytical framework of "Spatial Distribution - Influencing Factors - Policy Efficacy". The results show that four countries including the United States and the United Kingdom are high-incidence target countries for cybercrime (crime incidents ≥ 138 times), while five countries such as Singapore and South Korea achieve a crime prevention rate of over 89%. Economic level (GDP), internet penetration, and cybersecurity policy efficacy (GCI index) exhibit significant spatially heterogeneous impacts on crime distribution, with well-developed and strictly enforced legal policies accounting for 80% of the crime inhibition effect. Geospatial proximity and technical investment intensity show positive inhibitory effects, and regional collaboration mechanisms can enhance prevention efficiency by over 30%. The study reveals the dual laws of cybercrime—"economic centers attracting crime" and "spatial differentiation of policy efficacy"—providing data support for optimizing global cybersecurity policies.

Among wireless communication technologies underlying Internet of Things (IoT)-based smart buildings, IQRF (Intelligent Connectivity Using Radio Frequency) technology is a promising candidate due to its low power consumption, cost-effectiveness, and wide coverage. However, effectively modeling the propagation characteristics of IQRF in complex indoor environments for simple and accurate network deployment remains challenging, as architectural elements like walls and corners cause substantial signal attenuation and unpredictable propagation behavior. This study investigates the applicability of a site-specific modeling approach, originally developed for urban street canyons, to characterize peer-to-peer (P2P) IQRF links operating at 868 MHz in typical indoor scenarios, including line-of-sight (LoS), one-turn, and two-turn non-line-of-sight (NLoS) configurations. The received signal powers are compared with well-known empirical models, including international telecommunication union radio communication sector (ITU-R) P.1238-9 and WINNER II, and ray-tracing simulations. The results show that while ITU-R P.1238-9 achieves lower prediction error under LoS conditions with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 5.694 dB, the site-specific approach achieves substantially higher accuracy in NLoS scenarios, maintaining RMSE values below 3.9 dB for one- and two-turn links. Furthermore, ray-tracing simulations exhibited notably larger deviations, with RMSE values ranging from 7.522 dB to 16.267 dB and lower correlation with measurements. These results demonstrate the potential of site-specific modeling to provide practical, computationally efficient, and accurate insights for IQRF network deployment planning in smart building environments.

This paper introduces the design of a new frequency-reconfigurable ultra-high frequency radio frequency identification (UHF RFID) antenna, demonstrating an innovative approach that enables dynamic adjustment of its resonance frequency. The proposed antenna design features a central dipole structure, enhanced by two hexagonal split-ring resonators (H-SRR) at each end. A T-match network is integrated into the center of the dipole, which is essential for achieving impedance matching between the antenna and the Alien Gen2 H4 RFID microchip. The antenna is designed using a Rogers 4350B substrate, a high-performance dielectric material ideal for RFID applications. With dimensions of 68×32.6×1.524 mm3, the compact antenna maintains full UHF band (860 MHz to 930 MHz) coverage compliant with International Telecommunications Union (ITU) RFID standards. This ensures that the antenna can be used in different regions around the world, offering broad compatibility with various RFID systems. The antenna's frequency reconfigurability is achieved through the integration of localized capacitors with variable values, which plays a key role in enabling precise adjustments to the antenna's center frequency across the entire UHF band. Extensive simulation results validate the effectiveness of this reconfigurable design, demonstrating that the antenna can dynamically adjust its frequency while maintaining excellent performance metrics, including impedance matching, radiation efficiency, and bandwidth. This makes the proposed antenna an ideal choice for modern RFID applications.

This paper compares the following four Terahertz (THz) band molecular absorption loss modeling tools: International Telecommunication Union (ITU)-R P.676 model, Line-by-Line Radiative Transfer Model (LBLRTM), Atmospheric Model (am), and HITRAN on the Web (HotW). We evaluate the THz band drone communication tools under horizontal and vertical communication scenarios. We use the U.S. Standard 1976 and tropical weather profiles to generate path loss data across different altitudes, frequencies, and distances. We also employ a simple analytical model, fitting the data from the ITU, LBLRTM, and am tools to assess its accuracy in predicting path loss. Our results demonstrate high consistency among the tools, with path loss differences becoming more significant in vertical scenarios. This study provides the first comprehensive comparison of four widely used molecular absorption loss modeling tools for THz band drone communications, considering various scenarios and weather conditions.

This study empirically analyzes the growing disparity between technological innovation and legal regulation adaptation in global smart tourism ecosystems. The research utilizes longitudinal data from the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), International Telecommunication Union (ITU), and Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). It identifies an average 3.2-year delay between the deployment of key technologies (AI, IoT, digital payments) and the enactment of corresponding legal frameworks, with AI governance facing the longest lag (4.1 years). Regional analysis reveals stark imbalances: European destinations enacted 120 ICT-specific tourism regulations between 2014–2024, compared to just 20 across Africa—a sixfold disparity reflecting institutional capacity gaps. The economic consequences are substantial, including 5–15 billion in annual global tax losses from unregulated digital platforms and 1.6 billion in tourism VAT leakage within developing economies (World Bank, 2023; OECD, 2023). Market distortions are equally evident, with 38% of travel technology startups delaying market entry due to legal uncertainty, rising to 45% in emerging markets (Startup Genome, 2023). The study concludes with a framework for adaptive legal governance, emphasizing regulatory sandboxes and multilateral legal harmonization to reduce latency in the smart tourism sector.

The article examines the issues of measuring the level of information and communication technology (ICT) development, which presents challenges due to ensuring methodological consistency over long-term dynamics. A decisive factor here is the scale of the research objects, which facilitates conducting cross-country comparisons and helps coordinate the measurement and receipt of official data by reputable international organizations, including the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which is constantly working to improve approaches to such measurements. The article discusses the possibilities of adapting the latest methods proposed by the ITU to assess the level of ICT development at the subnational level and to conduct cross-level comparisons.Considerable attention is paid to consistency when forming indicators with the same name across different hierarchical levels. The paper examines approaches to countering the «saturation» effect for the characteristics of the introduction of new technologies and limitations in the formulation of goals for their penetration into various spheres of modern society. The problems of data accessibility at the subnational level are analyzed, and the ways to address them within the set objectives are discussed. The findings enable the assessment of key dimensions of digital inequality and determine growth reserves in regional digital development.

The object of the study is the methods of radio frequency resource management in stratospheric communication systems based on high altitude platform stations (HAPS). The problem addressed is the limited radio frequency spectrum, frequency overlap with fifth- and sixth-generation (5G/6G) networks, and the high probability of interference, which complicate efficient spectrum utilization and coordination. The obtained results indicate that within the frequency bands recommended by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) — 21.4–22.0 GHz, 24.25–27.5 GHz, 47.2–47.5 GHz, and 47.9–48.2 GHz — the probability of interference reaches up to 70% in the 27.5–28.35 GHz band. By applying cognitive radio (CR) technology, interference levels decreased by 60%, and spectrum utilization efficiency increased by 35%. Dynamic spectrum access (DSA) improved spectrum efficiency by 30–45%, while spectrum sharing methods enhanced it by 40–60%. A brief explanation of the results shows that the proposed management approaches significantly increase the efficiency of radio frequency resource use and substantially reduce interference. For example, at a bandwidth of 100 MHz and a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of 10, the channel capacity reached approximately 332 Mbps. The distinctive features of the results lie in the comprehensive use of modern technologies that effectively address spectrum scarcity and interference issues, ensuring compatibility of HAPS with existing terrestrial and satellite communication systems. The proposed approaches are suitable for implementation in international and national spectrum coordination and licensing frameworks aimed at expanding broadband connectivity in underserved regions

The present work explores the insights of a design which is defined as an octagonal geometry based four port wideband MIMO antennas for wireless systems. The isolation essentialities have been considered through the parasitic elements (PE) with T-shaped isolation structure for isolation boost. The antenna under consideration is optimized to achieve the best MIMO performance parameters. It has functional band of 2.16-4.30 GHz and the antenna fabricated on substrate size of 60.0 X 76.0 mm2. The gain 3.44 dBi, envelop correlation coefficient (ECC) < 0.03, and mean effective gain (MEG) ≤ -2.90 dB are achieved. The total active reflection coefficient (TARC) bandwidth is found 1.35 GHz. The specific absorption rate and channel capacity loss are evaluated, and both found to be within acceptable limit recommended by international telecommunication union (ITU). The results obtained through the proposed design are found to be within the acceptable limits of stability for effective communication system.

A benchmark dataset for objective quality assessment of view synthesis for neural radiance field (NeRF).

Abstract Optical access network security concerns are increasingly urgent as the demands of important network functions have been significantly increased. This study evaluates gigabit passive optical networks (GPON) security and provides an innovative, resilient solution. In accordance with the International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication (ITU-T) G.984.6 standard series, the approach allows for safe mutual authentication and establishment of keys between optical line termination (OLT) units and optical network units (ONUs) in an optical distribution network (ODN). The Blowfish cipher algorithm has been used in combination with the Opti-System software. Fiber to the home (FTTH), based on GPON technology, offers cost-effective triple-play services. Aside from the customer premises and central office, it operates entirely on passive equipment. Telecom operators support FTTH systems based on GPON because they are flexible in reacting to future technologies as well as services. A network with a maximum reach of 65 km can accommodate up to 64 users using secure GPON technology at a minimum acceptable quality factor of 6, a maximum BER level of about 10−9 and optimum reach between optical consecutive network terminals of 20 km in accordance with G.984.6 ITU-T requirements. GPON transmits 2.5 Gbps downstream (D/S) and 1.25 Gbps upstream (U/S) data transmission with a minimum allowable receiving sensitivity of −35.8 dBm for uplink and −34.3 dBm for downlink has been achieved.

This study examines the role of the digital economy in enhancing economic development in Iraq, focusing on the period from 2003 to 2022. Utilizing an Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) model, the research analyzes the relationship between GDP growth and key digital economy indicators, including the E-Government Development Index (EGDI), E-Participation Index (EPI), Online Service Index (OSI), Telecommunication Infrastructure Index (TII), and Internet Usage (UI). Data were sourced from the World Bank, International Telecommunication Union (ITU), and United Nations E-Government Survey. The ARDL model, selected based on the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), was employed to capture both short-term dynamics and long-term equilibrium relationships. Diagnostic tests, including Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF), Phillips-Perron (PP), Toda-Yamamoto causality, and cointegration tests, were conducted to ensure model robustness. The findings reveal significant positive relationships between GDP growth and digital economy indicators, particularly EGDI and UI, highlighting the importance of e-government development and internet penetration in driving economic growth. However, EPI and TII showed negative long-term impacts, suggesting structural and institutional challenges. The study concludes that targeted investments in digital infrastructure, regulatory reforms, and capacity-building initiatives are essential for leveraging digital transformation to achieve sustainable economic development in Iraq. Policymakers are advised to prioritize digital inclusion and innovation to reduce oil dependency and foster economic resilience.

Cropland extent serves as a critical determinant for advancing various Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and satellite-derived data has been widely used to generate cropland extent maps. To further address the global mission of high-resolution cropland extent mapping, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) have proposed "cropland extent mapping" as a focal theme for the 2023 Geo-AI Challenge. Organized by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in collaboration with the Zindi platform, tasks of this challenge are divided into two components: (1) annual cropland extent mapping in Sudan and Iran, and (2) temporal cropland mapping in Afghanistan, with pre-provided training samples across all three test regions. Throughout the challenge duration, a total of 74 participating teams submitted their solutions, with the top five teams selected based on classification accuracy of cropland extent maps, innovative methodology, and effectiveness of oral presentation. Several key scientific questions were addressed during the challenge, including optimal classification feature selection, comparative analysis of diverse Machine Learning (ML) models, and fine-tuning of ML algorithms. Importantly, all datasets, scripts, and technical reports resulting from the challenge are openly accessible to the public domain, thereby fostering collaborative advancements within the agricultural remote sensing community.

Do states constrain non-state hackers? This article extends research on the role of transnational cyber aggression in international relations, showing that governments can be incentivized to mitigate non-state hacking. To test this argument, I leverage competitive elections to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which requires states to campaign on their cybersecurity record. By exploiting this variation, I demonstrate that states are responsive to incentives. Candidates reduce non-state cyber aggression to increase their likelihood of election. This finding demonstrates the potential utility of international institutions as a policy solution to transnational hacking, suggesting that structural incentives can induce states to constrain hackers operating in their territory.

The article is devoted to the study of legal issues of the use of geostationary orbit (GSO) in the context of national interests and international space law. GSO is a scarce natural resource, which is extremely important for the placement of telecommunication, metrological, navigational spacecraft, as well as for solving scientific and military tasks. Due to the limitations of geostationary positions, the use of the orbit is a subject of international competition, which requires effective legal regulation to ensure fair access to it and eliminate potential interstate conflicts. The law-making activity of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which is responsible for the distribution of geostationary segments necessary for the functioning of space vehicles, was noted. The mechanism of distribution of limited natural resources between states provides for the application of such additional criteria as the type and geospatial relationship of the territory of a certain state. The legal consequences of the adopted Bogotá Declaration are outlined, according to which GSO is considered a natural resource that is not part of outer space. Special attention is paid to the norms of the constitutional law of Colombia and Ecuador, which provide for the realization of the absolute and exclusive sovereignty of these states regarding the segments of the geostationary satellite orbit that correspond to their territories. It has been established that the regulation of geostationary relations at the domestic level gives rise to a number of legal issues regarding the balance of national interests and international obligations of states in the field of using orbital resources. It was determined that the constitutional and legal recognition of the segments of the GSO as part of the territory of individual equatorial states demonstrates significant deviations from the established norms and principles of international space law. The need to modernize international space law is emphasized - the formation of new international legal structures aimed at improving the tools that ensure a fair and effective distribution of the components of the orbit of geostationary satellites.

Urban development has become increasingly complex due to rapid population growth and the demand for sustainable practices. Implementing smart city solutions offers a potential approach to address these challenges. This study advances the understanding of the smart city concept, its essential elements, and its specific applicability within the Mexican context. We define smart cities by distinguishing them from sustainable cities, and We explore the most common frameworks created by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) and the International Standardization Organization (ISO). We review the Mexican standards (NMX) for smart cities. Additionally, we analyze different smart city approaches, and the roles of stakeholders involved in planning and implementing these initiatives. Based on this analysis, we outline adaptable frameworks for potential application in Mexican cities, identifying priority areas and criteria for selecting and prioritizing key performance indicators (KPIs) like technology use, energy efficiency, and social inclusion. This work lays a preliminary foundation for practical approaches to smart city development, offering a framework that supports informed decision-making and structured evaluation of progress toward urban intelligence.

This paper presents an architecture based on the MANET (Mobile Ad Hoc Network) paradigm as an emergency communication system between users of electric bicycles. The solution consists of 4 mobile nodes representing the users and a main fixed node, which emulates a bicycle docking station. This architecture allows multi-hop communication between the nodes, using the proactive routing protocols OLSR (Optimized Link State Routing) and BATMAN (Better Approach to Mobile Ad Hoc Networking). The study was divided into 3 main stages. First, an analysis of the wireless medium was performed to determine the maximum transmission distance and the maximum bitrate between 2 nodes. Subsequently, the throughput behavior was characterized in a multihop configuration consisting of 4 nodes in order to establish the network capacity in terms of bandwidth. Finally, a web application was implemented for the transmission of audio and text traffic. Regarding the evaluation of the proposal, two scenarios were designed to emulate the integration of a new cyclist to the network and the communication between two users in motion. The results reveal that OLSR provides a better system operation, with a throughput of 2.54 Mbps at 3 hops and a PRR (Packet Reception Rate) higher than 96%. In addition, it guarantees a delay within the ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication) G.114 recommendation for bidirectional communication.

At the current stage of production of various unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in the flight mode “first person view” (FPV), there are no individual passports with information on the maximum possible flight range for individual UAV-FPV kits and ground control stations (GSC) application of a suitable model of a digital video camera (including a thermal imaging camera) and the use of a radio line of communication in the centimeter frequency range. Therefore, the main goal of the article is the selection and development of methods for measuring the main parameters of the receiver-transmitter of UAVs and GSC in laboratory conditions in the combat zone, using the developed “simulator of the radio communication line of data transmission”; with further calculation, on the basis of relevant international standards, of the maximum possible flight range and drawing up the corresponding “flight map”. The main results of the article are: the method of determining the maximum possible flight range of UAVs in FPV mode in laboratory conditions for the frequency range of GHz has been developed, which is based on a set of developed experimental and empirical measurement methods and theoretical calculation methods, according to the recommendations of the ITU (International Telecommunication Union). The materials of the article are of practical value for the planning and organization of the flight mission of multi-rotor UAVs of the tactical level for a given distance, as well as for the activities of the UAV routine maintenance units of the Unmanned Systems Forces of the Armed Forces of Ukraine upon the fact that UAVs return from flight missions in order to check their technical parameters.

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) predicts a substantial and swift increase in global mobile data traffic. The predictions suggest that this growth will vary from 390 EB (exabytes) to 5,016 EB (exabytes) from 2024 to 2030, accordingly. This work presents a new maximum capacity model (MCM) to improve the dynamic resource allocation, robust encryption, and Quality of Service (QoS) in 5G networks which helps to meet the growing need for high-bandwidth applications such as Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and video streaming. Our proposed MCM model enhances data transmission by employing dynamic resource allocation, prioritised traffic management, and robust end-to-end encryption techniques, thereby guaranteeing efficient and safe data delivery. The encryption procedure is applied to the header cypher, while the output parameters of the payload are altered. This indicates that only the sender and recipient will possess exclusive knowledge of the final outcome. In result, the comparative analyses clearly show that the MCM model outperforms over conventional models in terms of QoS packet planner, QoS packet scheduler, standard packet selection, traffic management, maximum data rate, and bandwidth utilisation.

The devastating effects of rain-induced attenuation on communication links operating above 10 GHz during rainy events can significantly degrade signal quality, leading to interruptions in service and reduced data throughput. Understanding the spatial and seasonal distribution of rain heights is crucial for predicting these attenuation effects and for network performance optimization. This study utilized ten years of atmospheric temperature and geopotential height data at seven pressure levels (1000, 850, 700, 500, 300, 200, and 100 hPa) obtained from the Copernicus Climate Data Store (CDS) to deduce rain heights across nine stations in South Africa. The kernel density estimation (KDE) method was applied to estimate the temporal variation of rain height. A comparison of the measured and estimated rain heights shows a correlation coefficient of 0.997 with a maximum percentage difference of 5.3%. The results show that rain height ranges from a minimum of 3.5 km during winter in Cape Town to a maximum of about 5.27 km during the summer in Polokwane. The spatial variation shows a location-dependent seasonal trend, with peak rain heights prevailing at the low-latitude stations. The seasonal variability indicates that higher rain heights dominate in the regions (Polokwane, Pretoria, Nelspruit, Mahikeng) where there is frequent occurrence of rainfall during the winter season and vice versa. Contour maps of rain heights over the four seasons (autumn, spring, winter, and summer) were also developed for South Africa. The estimated seasonal rain heights show that rain-induced attenuations were grossly underestimated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) recommended rain heights at most of the stations during autumn, spring, and summer but fairly overestimated during winter. Durban had a peak attenuation of 15.9 dB during the summer, while Upington recorded the smallest attenuation of about 7.7 dB during winter at a 0.01% time exceedance. Future system planning and adjustments of existing infrastructure in the study stations could be improved by integrating these localized, seasonal radio propagation data in link budget design.

In the next decade, the amount of network traffic is estimated to reach Zettabytes. The future International Mobile Telecommunications-2030 (IMT-2030) standard of mobile networks, known as 6G, introduces an important paradigm shift in the context of wireless communication systems thanks to capabilities such as low latency and high data rates. Official documents on 6G standardization have been released by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). However, other visions and use cases of 6G have been proposed by industrial stakeholders and research institutions, thus generating a multitude of use cases and usage scenarios that are only apparently different from each other. This paper would contribute to providing a holistic vision of the 6G-enabled use cases and potentially impacted vertical market sectors. The differences and similarities between what has been proposed by ITU and other initiatives are identified through a comparison based on the technological characterization of use cases and of the considered vertical market sectors. The main findings presented in this paper demonstrate that many of the use cases proposed by ITU and by the other initiatives are almost identical in many cases.