IAEA Research Articles

Nuclear Energy as a Foundation for Brazilian Energy Security: Analysis of the Electrical System’s Vulnerability in The Face of Renewable Sources Intermittency

Objective: This paper analyzes the strategic role of nuclear energy within the Brazilian electricity matrix, aiming to reduce systemic vulnerability in the context of the increasing share of intermittent renewable sources and the declining participation of hydropower, historically the backbone of national generation. Theoretical Framework: The study is based on guidelines from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), reports from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the National Energy Plan 2030, and scientific articles from journals such as Nature Energy and Applied Energy, addressing energy security, nuclear fission, and renewable intermittency. Method: A documental analysis was conducted using historical series on water scarcity (2013–2022), calculation of the Thermal Power Plant Dispatch Coefficient, and development of a vulnerability equation tailored to the Brazilian electrical system. Simulations compared scenarios of installed capacity expansion through intermittent sources and nuclear generation. Results and Discussion: The results show that expansion relying solely on renewables significantly increases system vulnerability, whereas the inclusion of nuclear generation reduces this index, ensuring greater supply stability and less dependence on fast-dispatch thermal plants. Research Implications: This study contributes to sustainable energy planning by demonstrating the importance of public policies that balance matrix diversification with the expansion of firm, low-carbon sources. Originality/Value: The paper provides an analytical model specific to the Brazilian context, quantifying the real impact of nuclear energy as a mitigator of operational risks in an increasingly intermittent system.

Technical note: A proposal of a novel figure‐of‐merit defined from task‐based detectability index in abdominal radiography

Abstract BackgroundFigures of Merit (FOM) based on signal‐difference‐to‐noise ratio (FOMSDNR) are commonly used to determine optimal technical parameters in digital radiography.However, this does not evaluate image quality for a specific clinical task nor account for spatial frequency response.PurposeTo evaluate a new FOM based on the detectability index (FOMd') using the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) methodology. To compare the optimum parameters obtained from FOMd' and FOMSDNR on an anthropomorphic test‐object.MethodsSeveral settings were evaluated involving six additional filtrations from none to 1 mm Cu, two tube voltages (80 and 110 kV), and four incident air kerma at the detector(1, 2, 3, 4µGy). FOMd' and FOMSDNR were determined on a Clisis Exel DRF unit for the IAEA test‐object. The maximum FOM values determined the optimum settings. They were used to image an anthropomorphic test‐object modified with the presence of a lesion, either in homogeneous or heterogeneous backgrounds. Three radiologists scored the images with a 5‐point Likert scale. A Mann‐Whitney test was used to compare overall image scoring for both backgrounds.ResultsThe highest FOM values were at: 80 kV, 2µGy, 1 mm Cu for FOMSDNR and 80 kV, 1µGy, and 0.3 mm Cu+2 mm Al for FOMd'. Overall image scorings were statistically higher for FOMd' with homogenous background: 4.6±0.5 vs 3.7±1.0 (p = 0.013) and statistically similar for FOMs with heterogeneous background: 3.5±1.3 vs 3.9±0.8 (p = 0.540).ConclusionA novel FOM based on d' was introduced and compared with FOMSDNR, giving better and similar results on homogeneous and heterogeneous backgrounds, respectively. Since the d' has the advantage of selecting a size‐specific lesion for detection, the FOMd' opens the perspective for task‐based optimization in digital radiography using the IAEA methodology.

On-site analysis of radioactive caesium in river water using portable gamma-ray survey meter

Following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant accident, extensive research has been conducted on radioactive caesium isotopes (137Cs and 134Cs) by various groups. Using portable equipment, we conducted an on-site measurements of radioactive caesium, which significantly reduced the analysis time. In this study, the preparation of solid-phase extraction disk samples, effective count rate and detection efficiency calculation methods, and portable shielding for on-site radioactive caesium measurements using a portable gamma-ray survey meter (GSM) were investigated. The gamma-ray spectra of filter samples prepared according to the International Atomic Energy Agency standards and disk samples concentrated with radioactive caesium in soil leachate were measured using both the portable GSM and a high-purity germanium detector (HPGe). Yin's method was employed to calculate the radioactivity concentration of the disk samples using the portable GSM. The relative errors between the 137Cs activity concentration measured by the portable GSM and HPGe were kept within ± 5%. For the on-site radioactive caesium measurements, a self-designed shield was fabricated using a 3D printer and radiation shield materials to reduce the contribution of environmental radiation, such as cosmic and gamma-rays from radionuclides. On-site radioactive caesium analysis in river water was conducted using the portable GSM. An on-site analysis method for radioactive caesium in river water was investigated by combining the portable GSM with the solid-phase extraction disk concentration method. The proposed method enables straightforward quantitative analysis at environmental sites with a measurement time of over 1 h by utilizing an area compatible with the gamma-ray spectrum.Graphical abstract

Twenty‐Five Years of Probabilistic Fault Displacement Hazard Assessment

Abstract Fault displacement hazard poses significant risks to critical infrastructure such as buildings, roads, and pipelines. While some structures can tolerate a certain degree of surface displacement, others, such as buildings, are far more vulnerable. Probabilistic Fault Displacement Hazard Assessment (PFDHA) quantifies the probability of exceeding a certain level of displacement at a site due to surface‐rupturing earthquakes. A PFDHA model consists primarily of two components: the surface rupture probability and the fault displacement models (FDMs). FDMs distinguish between principal fault rupture and distributed rupture. Principal fault rupture occurs along the primary fault plane, where seismic energy is primarily released during an earthquake. In contrast, distributed rupture refers to all other tectonic surface ruptures occurring away from the principal fault. This differentiation was first introduced during the pioneering PFDHA study conducted for the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository (Nevada, USA) in the early 2000s. Since then, the methodology has been applied to various fault types, including strike‐slip and reverse faults. In recent years, the number of new models and the awareness of PFDHA has grown thanks to several international initiatives such as the worldwide and unified database of surface ruptures, the fault displacement hazard initiative, and the benchmark project led by the International Atomic Energy Agency. With growing interest and rapid advancements in this field, this article aims to provide a complete overview of all published models, discuss their applicability and limitations, standardize the terminology, and outline the necessary developments to guide future research.

Lessons Learned and Best Practices on BWR Severe Accident Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis in the Framework of the IAEA CRP I31033

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) launched Coordinated Research Project (CRP) I31033, “Advancing the State-of-Practice in Uncertainty and Sensitivity Methodologies for SA Analysis in Water-Cooled Reactors,” in 2019. One of the main outputs of this CRP was a series of technical documents (TECDOCs) presenting the methodologies for performing uncertainty and sensitivity analysis developed by each of the 22 participating institutions and applied to different water-cooled reactors, i.e. pressurized water reactors (including small modular reactors), boiling water reactors (BWRs), CANDUs, and VVERs, as well as the QUENCH-06 experiment. This paper presents the BWR group´s main outcomes from this CRP and the contents of the TECDOC in preparation, including best practices and lessons learned by the four organizations contributing to the TECDOC: (1) CIEMAT (Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas), (2) GAEC (Ghana Atomic Energy Commission), (3) CNSNS (Comisión Nacional de Seguridad Nuclear y Salvaguardias), and (4) ININ (Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Nucleares). The first two institutions addressed severe accident scenarios in a BWR/3 with Mark-I primary containment, while the last two used models of a BWR/5 with Mark-II containment. Except for CNSNS, the participants chose a short-term (unmitigated) station blackout scenario for analysis, and the scope of the analysis was limited to only in-vessel phenomena. In the case of CNSNS, depressurization and reactor core isolation cooling injection were considered mitigating measures, and the analysis included both in-vessel and ex-vessel phenomena. The MELCOR code was used by the first three participants, and the MAAP5 code was used by ININ. Information on the figures of merit and the set of uncertain code input variables with their associated probability density functions is also presented in this paper.

A new methodology to identify Structures, Systems, and Components needed to cope with Design Extended Conditions in the scope of a Nuclear Power Plant Long Term Operation

To obtain the License Renewal (LR) for the Long-Term Operation (LTO) of a Nuclear Power Plants (NPPs) is important ensuring the integrity of Structures, Systems, and Components (SSCs). Additionally, the SSCs must continue to perform their intended functions under Design Extended Conditions (DEC). DEC encompasses a wide range of conditions beyond the design basis, including both severe and non-severe scenarios. The ageing process can compromise the intended functions of SSCs in a NPP. NPPs must demonstrate their ability to cope with DEC without compromising safety. The objective of this paper is to describe one methodology have been developed to identify SSCs with scope of LR needed to cope with the DEC in LTO. The proposed methodology follows the recommendation of U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) requirements and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safety standards and demonstrating their commitment to safety and environmental protection. The main contributions of the new methodology is to identify the systems, components and subcomponents needed to cope with design extensions conditions that not have Maintenance Program (MP) or Aging Management Program (AMP) and address these components in the plant level AMP or recommend an Aging Managements Review (AMR) according to their characteristic and function. Accomplish the intended safety functions of SSCs throughout the plant's operational lifetime including during LTO is crucial to safety and reliable operation of the plant. An example of application of the proposed methodology is presented.

Response to nuclear and radiological emergencies - Brazil and the world

Some nuclear and radiological accidents happened on last decades, providing to specialized personnel a huge change in terms of protocols and safety measures. In Brazil, the experience during the response to the radiologic accident in Goiânia/GO in 1987 showed the need for a rapid and intense mobilization of human resources to act in several areas of knowledge (radiological monitoring of personnel and areas, dosimetry, waste management, logistical support, social communications, among others). At that time, most of the people involved did not have the opportunity to have previously received even necessary training to act in an event of that nature and magnitude. Taking into account the global scenario, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has issued a series of documents that aim to guide its Member States, to achieve an adequate level of preparedness to respond to emergency situations of nuclear or radiological origin. The paper brings an introduction, the methodology applied, a contextualization about nuclear accidents; emphasis on ocurrences in Peru; the accident in Goiânia. Finally, the preparation and response to accidents; the Nuclear and Radiological Emergency Response System (SAER), and a conclusion.

Analysis and quantification of tritium and other low-level radionuclides present in ALPS-treated water.

Advanced liquid processing system (ALPS)-treated water was sampled from the K4-B tank group on March 24, 2022, in the presence of staff from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) Holdings, Inc. The Nuclear Safety Research Center (NSRC) of the Japan Atomic Energy Agency analyzed ten key radionuclides (3H, 14C, 60Co, 90Sr, 99Tc, 106Ru, 125Sb, 129I, 134Cs, and 137Cs) and three additional nuclides (36Cl, 55Fe, and 79Se) in the ALPS-treated water as part of independent monitoring for the regulatory body. According to the obtained results, all radionuclide concentrations, except that for the 3H concentration, were ultralow and less than the standard values permitted for discharge. TEPCO's analytical results were evaluated using the En number, which indicated satisfactory performance. In addition, reference values and ζ scores obtained via the IAEA's interlaboratory comparisons were recalculated incorporating the NSRC's results. All ζ scores for NSRC, IAEA, and TEPCO fell between - 2 and 2, demonstrating that the results are acceptable at a 95.4% confidence level.

Quantification and comparison of the reference dose measurements using IAEA TRS-398 protocols and its revised version.

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) released a protocol named Technical Report Series (TRS-398) to measure the absorbed dose in water for external radiotherapy beams. It provides a unified approach for using calibrated ionization chambers that are traceable to standard laboratories in determining the absorbed dose to water. The objective of the study was to compare the reference dosimetry [dose at 10cm depth ( )] between TRS-398 and its revised version. Reference dosimetry was performed for flattened photon beam with nominal energies of 6, 10, and 15 MV as well as flattening filter free (FFF) beam of energies 6 FFF and 10 FFF based on the guidelines of both TRS-398 and its revised version using two different ionization chambers of varying sensitive volumes such as 0.65 cm3 (FC65-G) & 0.13 cm3 (CC13) IBA ionization chambers with calibration coefficient traceable to absorbed dose to water (Dw) standards. The comparison of absorbed dose at 10cm ( ) depth using both protocols with FC65-G chamber shows a difference ranging from 0.40 to 0.63% in FF beams and 0.03 to 0.05% in FFF beams. For CC13 chamber, the difference ranged from -0.60 to -0.77% in FF beams and -0.40 to -0.50% in FFF beams. The differences in absorbed dose between TRS-398 old and revised protocols were evaluated and a variation of up to 0.63% in was observed for FC65-G and -0.77% in was observed for CC13 chamber. The use of old value affects the reference dose measurements, which overestimates the results by an average of 0.5%. The use of cross-calibrated chamber following the old protocol in determining the underestimates the results by maximum of -0.77% in FF beams and -0.5% in FFF beams.

Basic Principles of Safeguards by Design

This paper presents basic principles of Safeguards by Design (SBD), whereby the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) provides guidance to State and regional safeguards authorities, designers, equipment providers and prospective purchasers on the importance of taking international safeguards into account when designing or modifying a nuclear facility or process.

MA‐XRF Scanner: Implementation of Elemental Maps Reconstruction Algorithm Based on Single Photon Detection for Cultural Heritage Studies

ABSTRACTRecent advancements in data acquisition hardware and online digital pulse processing facilitate real‐time detection and timestamping of single photons with nanosecond‐level resolution. The integration of this technology with a precision movement system facilitates conditions for developing innovative image reconstruction algorithms, thereby enhancing traditional methods. Moreover, the active system control enables stable and safe scanning by maintaining a constant distance from the surface of the object while ensuring uniformity in the photon collection. This paper outlines the design and development of an MA‐XRF scanner for cultural heritage studies, along with the presentation of an elemental map reconstruction algorithm based on single‐photon mapping, highlighting its advantages and limitations. The scanner is based on a three‐axis system covering an inspection range of 510 mm in X and Y axis and 50 mm in the Z axis, with 10 μm effective step resolution. Additionally, it incorporates a laser proximity sensor, allowing for dynamic distance‐to‐surface adjustment with a precision of 10 μm. The X‐ray beam can be collimated to a spot size of 600 or to 185 μm by using a polycapillary lens positioned 1 mm from the surface. The mechanical system is synchronized with the photon collection performed by a silicon drift detector with an energy range from characteristic XRF lines of Sulphur (2.308 keV) to Barium (32.19 keV), and a multichannel analyzer operating in time‐list mode (TLIST), with a timestamp resolution of 40 ns. The resulting elemental map allows for image reconstruction with different pixel sizes selected by the user. The system is controlled by an Application Programming Interface (API) developed in Python, allowing for seamless integration with a Jupyter Notebook server for remote operation. This collaborative effort between the Multidisciplinary Laboratory (MLAB) of the Abdus Salam International Centre of Theoretical Physics (ICTP) and the Nuclear Science and Instrumentation Laboratory (NSIL) of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) aims to advance research capabilities in cultural heritage studies.

Paving the way for improved action: how nuclear techniques can advance the assessment of malnutrition.

Paving the way for improved action: how nuclear techniques can advance the assessment of malnutrition.

Radiological Doses Assessment of NORM Waste for Soil Samples in Some of the Oil Fields

Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) wastes are generated during oil production operations and the unjustified radiation exposures resulting from it represent challenges facing many countries, including Iraq. This research deals with an evaluation of the absorbed dose rates and the total annual radiation dose resulting from this waste in the study area. The activity concentrations of radionuclides in 13 soil samples were measured by using the Falcon 5000 system containing an HPGe detector. For which, the samples were placed at a distance of 5 cm from the detector surface for 3 hours. Then, the radiation dose rates were calculated. It is found that the values of the average absorbed dose is 23.42 nGy/h and the average total annual effective outdoor and indoor doses are 0.029 mSv/y and 0.115 mSv/y, respectively. These values are lower than the limits set by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) GSR Part3 standards and the recommended values in UNSCEAR 2000. The outputs of RESRAD-ONSITE software showed that the total dose values are 3.24 μSv/y , which is less than the permissible values for the total radiation dose for workers in the radiation field. The research recommended conducting continuous monitoring of absorbed dose rates and total annual effective doses for workers in work areas and continuous radiation evaluation of NORM waste sites through the use of appropriate radiation monitoring devices and taking samples to make the necessary measurements and spreading radiation awareness among workers in work areas.

Comparison of the air kerma standards of ARPANSA, Australia, and the IAEA in RQR, RQA, and RQT diagnostic X-ray beams.

A comparison of air kerma standards between the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was carried out for the RQR, RQA and RQT radiation qualities (as prescribed by IEC 61267 or IAEA TRS 457) using two ionisation chambers as transfer standards. The ratios between the IAEA and ARPANSA calibration coefficients ranged between 0.993 and 0.997 for RQR beams, 0.990 and 0.999 for RQA beams, and 0.993 to 0.994 for RQT beams. The relative expanded uncertainty for IAEA and ARPANSA was 1.2 and 1.4% respectively, and the comparison results agree at around the level of, or better than, the combined standard uncertainty of 0.74% for all the beams.

The Q-NPT: Redefining Nuclear Energy Governance for Sustainability

Global peace, security, and sustainable energy development depend on effective nuclear energy governance. While the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) has served as a cornerstone in this domain, it faces challenges such as trust deficits, inequitable access to nuclear technologies, and regional instability. This paper proposes the Qudrat-Ullah Nuclear Peace and Trust (Q-NPT) framework, a dynamic implementation roadmap designed to address these issues. The framework focuses on fostering trust among stakeholders, ensuring equitable access to nuclear technologies, and promoting inclusivity in governance structures. A key theoretical contribution is the integration of trust-building measures with sustainable energy transitions, highlighting nuclear energy’s role in decarbonization and global energy security. The paper outlines actionable pathways for implementing the Q-NPT framework, including enhanced oversight by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), capacity-building initiatives, and training programs to enable safe and sustainable nuclear cooperation, particularly in developing nations. By operationalizing nuclear programs through this approach, the Q-NPT framework aligns nuclear energy governance with global sustainable energy objectives.

Pelanggaran Asas Good Faith terhadap Perjanjian Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) Oleh Korea Utara

This research examines North Korea's violation of the principle of good faith under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and its legal consequences. The main issue addressed in this study is North Korea’s breach of the good faith principle within the framework of the NPT, which raises legal implications regarding its status and obligations as a party to the treaty. Although North Korea was formally bound by the NPT, it secretly developed a nuclear weapons program, demonstrating non-compliance with the fundamental principle of international treaty implementation. This issue was further exacerbated by its refusal to allow inspections by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and its unilateral withdrawal from the NPT, which has sparked debate over the legitimacy and legality of such action.Using a normative juridical approach, this study analyzes North Korea’s clandestine development of nuclear weapons while still a member of the NPT, as well as the validity of its withdrawal from the treaty. The findings show that North Korea violated the principle of good faith through its secret nuclear program, refusal of IAEA inspections, and withdrawal that did not meet the requirements of Article X of the NPT. The withdrawal may be deemed invalid as it was conducted in bad faith and without fulfilling the treaty's formal provisions. The legal consequences include the continued applicability of obligations under the NPT and state responsibility for breaches of international law. Ideal forms of accountability include the cessation of the nuclear program, payment of reparations, guarantees of non-repetition, and renewed compliance with NPT provisions through verifiable denuclearization.

How to turn a mobile laboratory into a diplomatic bag: international relations, the IAEA and nuclear diplomacy

ABSTRACT In 1959, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) sent a mobile radioisotope laboratory to Athens, Greece, in the context of its Technical Assistance (TA) Missions to member states. To analyze the diplomatic aspects of the TA program, we conceptualize the mobile laboratory as a ‘diplomatic bag’ in transit that allowed the IAEA to negotiate its diplomatic power over nuclear issues on a global level and establish its regulatory presence. By focusing on the nexus of nuclear science and diplomacy, we explore how a mobile scientific laboratory was transformed to a sacrosanct diplomatic object – a diplomatic bag – with inviolability privileges and diplomatic status allowing it to travel unrestrained across the globe. This paper brings forward the fine-grained diplomatic negotiations and exchanges among novel diplomatic actors – beyond ambassadors and state diplomats – who made possible the transformation of a mobile laboratory from a mere technoscientific object to an artifact that was familiar to diplomatic circles.

Assessment of the radiological health hazards around mine sites in Jos Area, Nigeria.

Mining activities contribute to the accumulation of radionuclides, necessitating an assessment of the level of radioactivity around mine sites and the potential radiological hazards they pose to human health and the environment. This study assesses the radiological impacts of mining activities on the residents of selected mining areas at Rayfield, Gero, Sabongida Kanar, Kuru Jantar, Bisichi and Barkin Ladi in Jos Area, Nigeria. The activity concentration of 40K, 226Ra and 232Th in 24 mine wastes and 36 soil samples collected from farmlands adjoining the selected mine sites were determined by using a gamma-ray spectrometer fully equipped with an MPC 2000 radiation counter. This was done in accordance with the provisions of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Subsequently, the radiological hazard indices due to the radionuclides were evaluated following standard procedures. The mean activity concentrations of 40K, 226Ra and 232Th in both the mine waste and soil samples of the study area were found to exceed the global average terrestrial concentrations of 400, 35 and 40Bq/kg for 40K, 226Ra and 232Threspectively. The mean outdoor annual effective dose (OAED) for mine waste (7.6 ± 0.2mS/yr) and soil samples (1.9 ± 0.04mS/yr) was higher than the mean value of the control (1.46 ± 0.37) as well as the acceptable limits of 1mS/yr for non-radiation workers, the world and Nigerian averages. Excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) values significantly exceed the global average of 0.52 × 10-3. The values of the hazard parameters like the radium equivalent activity (Raeq), OAED as well the ELCR were significantly higher than the recommended values and therefore pose considerable radiological hazard either on direct contact or being used as construction materials. The different hazard indices show a potential source of high radiological exposure. The findings indicate serious radiological health and environmental risks, requiring strict policy interventions, safer mining practices, remediation plans, and restrictions on the utilization of these mine wastes in construction and farming.

IPR-R1 Triga Reactor aging management approach <i></i>

A global nuclear safety regime is in place and is being continuously improved. In this context, the aging management of research reactors is one of the requirements for licensing by the regulatory body. The IPR-R1 Triga reactor, located at the for Nuclear Technology Development Center (CDTN), is a nuclear reactor used primarily to research support. It has been in operation for over 60 years and its activities are expected to continue. Thus, the aging management of components, structures and systems is one of the safety factors included in the Periodic Safety Report and encompasses several programs and activities, following the Specific Safety Guide SSG-10 (Aging Management for Research Reactors) of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). These programs are broad and transversal, serving as input for critical analysis of the Aging Management Plan (AMP), aimed at its continuous improvement. This paper aims to systematically present information related to the AMP of the CDTN IPR-R1 Triga reactor, such as visual inspection, reactor pool water quality control, maintenance, obsolescence control, investigation of operational parameters and all necessary controls to ensure that the safety margins required in the reactor design are maintained throughout its useful life.

Crossing boundaries, forging unity: nuclear medicine and science diplomacy in Cold War Europe.

This article explores the emergence of nuclear medicine as a clinical research field in post-war Europe, focusing on the shaping of its disciplinary boundaries in the context of geopolitical divisions. It examines how this speciality was negotiated and established, highlighting the role of international exchanges involving researchers, radioisotopes and technologies. By bringing together physicists, radiologists and internists, nuclear medicine gained momentum in the 1950s, leading to the formation of first dedicated scientific societies, conferences and journals. Physicians working in Austria played an influential role in this identity-building process on the European level. They benefited from the networks of the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, the country's political neutrality and their early emphasis on thyroid diseases. We argue that nuclear medicine emerged out of scientific-diplomatic practices that unified this diverse field of research while also setting it apart from more established clinical specialities. We will trace how physicians and medical facilities in Austria came into play as partners on both sides of the Iron Curtain and navigated these intertwined diplomatic and disciplinary dynamics, facilitating intra-European cooperation on epistemic, political and social levels.