International Situation Research Articles

The Genesis of the Maastricht Treaty and Its Importance for the European Integration and Security

The Treaty of Maastricht was signed thirty years ago, that is, on 7 February 1992, and after its ratification entered into force on 1 November 1993. It was a quantum leap into the European integration initiated after the Second World War. It constituted a basis for the creation of the European Union (EU), becoming an accelerator of the European integration and an important element of the transatlantic system of international security. Its origin and decisions rest in such contemporary events and processes as the “Autumn of Nations,” which resulted in the fall of communism in the states of Central and Eastern Europe, German reunification on 3 October 1990, the collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991 and the global end of the Cold War. The article is aimed at analyzing the prerequisites of the genesis of the Treaty of Maastricht and showing its significance for the integration and security of Europe after the collapse of the Yalta-Potsdam order and the end of the Cold War. The main thesis statement is that the Treaty of Maastricht would not have been signed and the European Union would not have been established without the fall of communism in the states of Central and Eastern Europe, the collapse of the Soviet Union and German reunification. Moreover, I believe that international situation after the Cold War would have been less stable without the Treaty of Maastricht and the EU, because the competition for leadership between reunited Germany and France would have intensified.

Философия мягкой силы в международном взаимодействии: между «парасиловым» принуждением и скрытным управлением

The article is devoted to the study of the phenomenon of soft power in the modern situation of international communication and multicultural interaction. The relevance of this topic is dictated, on the one hand, by the fact that soft power acts as a modern alternative to classical traditional forms of hard power – which gives it a signif-icant advantage of a humanitarian nature, on the other, by the understanding that soft power, unfortunately, is often not an end in itself, but acts only as an element or modification of hard power, i.e. situations when “tough arguments” are exhausted and costly in short-term implementation, and pushing through specific interests can be carried out much more effectively through informational influence on the opponent than by military or eco-nomic means, which is reflected in the famous phraseology: “A honey tongue, a heart of gall”. Consequently, the search for a balance between altruism and egoism, as well as often irrational results of collective activity of subjects of international relations actualize the problem of philosophical reflection of forms of interaction and ethical justification of their use, which would lead to the solution of not only the classical problem “violence be-gets violence” (“hate begets hate”), but also the problem when paradoxically “nonviolence also begets vio-lence”. In the latter case, we are talking about the use of “soft power” in a unilateral version, when the victory of one pole is achieved by destroying all other alternatives, which in the current international situation is reflected in the crisis of the unipolar system of the world. The methodology of the work is based on the principles and methods of socio-philosophical analysis, the concept of historicism, comparative analysis, which is interdisci-plinary.

Russia and the Netherlands in the First Half of the 18th Century:
 the Main Stages of the Development of Bilateral Relations

The study of Russian-Dutch relations in the first half of the 18th century is of interest in terms of studying the process of Russia's entry into the all-European system. This article examines in the context of all-European relations the main features and peculiarities of the development of Russian-Dutch mutual relations during four main stages: the period of the Northern War; 1725–1730; the 30s associated with the War of the Polish succession; the 40s of the 18th century - the period of the War
 of the Austrian succession. It turns out that during the Northern War, Russian-Dutch relations changed depending on the international conjuncture and the specifics of the trade policy pursued by Russia. In the first years after the death of Peter I, in 1725–1730, Russian-Dutch diplomatic relations changed due to general changes in Russia's domestic and foreign policy. The revival of 1725–1726 was replaced by the recession of 1727–1730. In the 30s of the 18th century, political, diplomatic and trade relations between Russia and the Netherlands continued to develop, and this happening more often in the context of all-European relations. The latter trend intensified as Russia entered the European system, which found its expression at the next stage of the development of Russian-Dutch relations – during the War of the Austrian Succession. Summing up, we can highlight the following important trend: traditionally focused on trade relations, Russian-Dutch relations are increasingly becoming dependent on the peculiarities of the international situation in Europe, on the balance of power on the international arena.

The Eastern Question in the Views of the Russian Liberals of the Early 20th Century

The study deals with the attitude of Russian liberals of the early 20th century to the Eastern question, which occupied a special place in international politics and whose aggravation became one of the factors leading to the World War I. Various political forces in Russia developed their own variants of its solution, realizing that the fate not only of the country, but of the whole world largely depended on the projects they proposed. The analysis of the liberals’ ambiguous perception of the Russian government’s actions in the Balkans, their attitude to the South Slavs, to the problem of the Black Sea Straits, and to the confrontation between the great powers united in alliances, i.e. all aspects of the Eastern question, will allow us to reconstruct and understand the liberals’ understanding of the connection between foreign policy and Russia’s internal development, national interests, and ideological values. Looking at the views of the liberals of the early 20th century on the Eastern question reveals not only the peculiarities of its perception by the ruling elite and representatives of the legal opposition, but also the roots of the growing alienation of the country’s elite from the people. It was this alienation, which intensified during the war years and manifested itself, among other things, in the different perceptions of the importance of the Eastern question by the authorities, the liberals, and the people, that led to the fall of the first liberal Provisional Government in the spring of 1917. As a result, the people tired of the war and unable to understand the meaning of Russia’s struggle for foreign lands, came to support the Bolsheviks, who exposed the “imperialist plans” of the Provisional Government and advocated peace without annexations and contributions. The paper touches upon the problem of the liberals’ attitude not only to the government’s foreign policy, but also to Russian statehood, the conceptual reasons for their transition from a restrained peace-loving position and the desire to prevent war to its unconditional support. The authors identify the ideological and foreign policy factors that influenced this liberal transit. The main attention is paid to the understanding of representatives of various liberal movements of the Eastern question, which, without exaggeration, took a central place not only in their foreign policy program, but also in the project of internal transformations, which envisaged the creation of Great Russia as a result of its solution. The study identifies and analyzes the innovations introduced by the liberals in the interpretation of the Eastern question under the influence not only of the changing international situation, political and economic modernization of Russia, which was becoming a “Duma monarchy,” but also of the development of the ideology itself; the peculiarities of its perception by representatives of various liberal currents in the country are examined.

Crisis of values’ convergence in relations between Central Europe and Brussels

The article analyses the origins of the current differences between Brussels and the countries of Central Europe, which tend to deepen and require much effort in order to preserve the unity of the European Union. The contradictions were already evident at the time of the admission of the countries to the EU, that took place according to an accelerated scenario in conditional compliance of these countries with the Maastricht and Copenhagen criteria. The condition, which dealt directly with the issues of market expansion and adaptation of new countries to it, initially received more attention than the condition, which involved political and legal issues. The deepening of the political union of the EU took place already after the admission of new countries, for many of which the new depths of convergence turned out to be unacceptable. However, that meant provoking confrontation with Brussels. Over 20 years of coexistence, the EU members made necessary compromises, however, from the middle of the second decade of the 21st century, disagreements became substantial and Brussels, using the financial leverage of the EU, began to pressure defiant countries, primarily Hungary and Poland. The author comes to the conclusion that in the current difficult international situation, the sides will have to reach a certain compromise.

International exchanges as an instrument of american public diplomacy

It has become clear that the development of international situation will be determined by several trends: transformation of the world order, crisis of American global leadership and confrontation between the great powers. All three are intertwined since the primary reason for confrontation is the disagreement between the great powers about how they envision the future of world order: as continuation of “rule-based order” with American leadership or as a new model, for instance, a multipolar world. Thus, the importance of methods aimed at influencing international public opinion, such as public diplomacy (PD), has increased significantly. Among the U.S. PD instruments international exchanges have always been the “crown jewel” - a slow long-term but nevertheless effective strategic tool used to gradually create a dominating global worldview beneficial for American national interests. This article examines the place the international exchanges hold within the systemic organization of the U.S. PD, identifies the main types of exchanges as well as three key focus-groups of their target audiences. Applying the transformative education’s theory author analyzes the mechanics of influence projected via the exchanges. At the end, putting together American PD systemic crisis and recent negative trends concerning participation in exchanges the article concludes that further monitoring will be required in the future.

“New Pearl Harbor” and US Digital Media 2001‑2002

The research topic is aimed at studying the means, methods and techniques of updating the metaphor “New Pearl Harbor” in the US foreign policy discourse. Analysis of the evolution of this metaphor in the US media in the 21st century allows us to talk about the formation of a special phenomenon of the socio-political life of the United States, the reconstruction and explanation of which is not possible within the framework of the traditional methodology of historical research, but requires an interdisciplinary approach based on historical imagology. The importance and significance of this metaphor is shown by the fact that in every foreign policy crisis, in every new threat, in every aggravation of the international situation, the metaphor “Pearl Harbor” was used in the United States. The metaphor “New Pearl Harbor” and its variation “Russian Pearl Harbor” is an important element of US foreign policy discourse and contemporary research. As a result of the research, it was established that the metaphor “New Pearl Harbor” is used both for “internal consumption” (political discourse) and for the external one. Moreover, in the 21st century, this metaphor very often arises in the coverage and analysis of contemporary Russian-American relations. The article shows the evolution of the “New Pearl Harbor” metaphor in the US digital media. Digital media in the United States reacted most quickly to changes in the use of the “New Pearl Harbor” metaphor. The article is intended for political scientists, historians and journalists.

Research on the Coordination Between International Economic Situation and International Economic Policy

Under the background of the deepening development of economic globalization, the economies of various countries in the world are interdependent, and the economic coordination policies among countries are also emerging one after another. The solutions to the problems existing between countries' trade have also attracted more attention. At present, the complexity of the global economic recovery situation lies in the fact that the recovery foundation of private consumption and private investment in the United States and Europe is still very fragile; The deterioration of European sovereign debt situation has forced EU countries to adopt more severe public expenditure austerity plans. The extroversion of economic policy coordination between countries is constantly expanding. As far as a country is concerned, maintaining the balance between domestic employment and inflation and the balance of international payments is an important goal of its foreign trade. This paper mainly studies the coordination between international economic situation and international economic policy, and puts forward new ideas for overcoming the problems in the process of international economic integration by analyzing the characteristics of global macroeconomic situation and international economic policy coordination.

The USSR’s Foreign Policy and “The Conflict with Finland” in Documents (1939–1940)

The fate of East-European countries was decided on 23 August 1939, in the wake of the Soviet-German agreement, on 1st September 1939 Germany triggering its assault on Poland. The documents presented here refer to ‘the international situation which worsened in Eastern Europe after the fall of Poland.’ The Soviet Union invades Finland and, following difficult and exhausting battle, on 5 March 1940, the Finnish government sent a delegation to negotiate peace.

The growth of Soviet music in the scope of Chinese cinema in the early period of the establishment of New China: an example of the interlude “Oh, the snowball tree is in blossom” in the film and television works of Ivan Perilyev

In the early days of the founding of New China, there was an international situation with close political contact between China and the Soviet Union. I still remember the title of “Big Brother of the Soviet Union”, which shows the political and cultural exchange and blending between these two countries. In the film industry culture, Soviet films and their unique musical melodies and content materials have inspired the development of Chinese films. The musical elements in the films can make the film works more valuable, and it is easier for them to have emotional impacts and fluctuations to invoke empathy and association. This article will analyze and discuss the films in the early days of the founding of New China through the development and influence of Soviet music in China at that time and through the detailed analysis of the specific work “Happy Life” by Ivan Pyryev to search for and summarize the clues of the rooted development of Soviet music in the Chinese film industry and its role and significance in future film and television development.

Armed conflicts and state security through the prism of the war in Ukraine

In recent years, we have seen a wide range of forms of armed conflict, varying in scale, intensity, complexity, and duration, blurring the lines between war and peace. These and other conditions were the reason for undertaking research aimed at identifying scenarios for the development of the international security situation and scenarios for the use of the Polish Armed Forces in relation to threats of a military nature in our country’s neighbourhood, in the region, and across the world. With this in mind, while conducting research on the above-mentioned issues, the article focused attention on a research problem which took the form of a question: How does the development of military threats and potential armed conflicts, including the one in Ukraine, affect the shaping of state security? The hypothesis took the form of an assumption that military threats and, consequently, armed conflicts are one of the main determinants of shaping state security. In the face of the threat of an armed conflict, states take actions to ensure their security, in particular, political, organisational, and modernisation activities, and above all, to increase their defence potential in view of war. The research was conducted in military universities, and the general population (N) included research and teaching staff. The research tool was a questionnaire posted on the MS Teams online platform, which is also used to educate students at military universities.

Czy idea budowy narodu czechosłowackiego była determinantą powstania I Republiki w 1918 r.?

Before 1914, the idea of Czech-Slovak unity did not play an important role in Czech political life. This changed radically during World War I, and most Czech politicians began to postulate that an independent Czech state should also include the area of northern Hungary where Slovaks lived. This programme had primarily a geopolitical basis, but it was influenced by ideas of Czech-Slovak cultural and linguistic proximity that had already emerged in the 19th century. After Czechoslovakia's proclamation of independence on 28 October 1918, the unity of the two titular nations was recognised by the majority of Czechs elites and a certain part of Slovak elites as a kind of state ideology, which was conventionally called Czechoslovakism. This was reflected in the Czechoslovak Constitution of 29 February 1920 and other legal acts. At least until the autumn of 1918, however, a scenario in which the Slovak lands would not become part of the Czech state was also possible. This fact would certainly have had manifold consequences for the internal and international situation of such a state, but it did not rule out its normal functioning.

Budownictwo cerkiewne w kontekście procesów modernizacyjnych w Królestwie Polskim w drugiej połowie XIX i na początku XX w.

This article aims to examine the historical significance of church building in the Kingdom of Poland during the second half of the nineteenth century, with a particular focus on its role in the processes of colonisation, Russification, and modernisation of the region. The article analyzes the utilization of the Russian Orthodox Church as an instrument in Russian nationalist politics, shedding light on its involvement in shaping the political and religious landscape. The Uniate question and the issue of the separation of Chelm region are also explored in the context of this policy. The authors provide insights into how the Russian Empire viewed the Kingdom of Poland, dividing it into two key regions and highlighting the consequences of this policy from the perspective of the local population. Additionally, the article examines the priorities of the Russian administration in the Kingdom of Poland, taking a closer look at their impact on the modernisation processes that took place in the Congress Kingdom. By analyzing the historical interaction between religion and politics, this article offers a comprehensive understanding of the role of the Orthodox Church in shaping the internal situation of the Kingdom of Poland at the end of the 19th century.

기업가적 태도가 대학생의 주식투자행태에 미치는 영향

The stock market, where stock investments are made, is deeply related to the economy. Through the experience of participating as shareholders in the stock market, college students have the opportunity to naturally analyze domestic and international political and economic situations and gain indirect experience in corporate management. Meanwhile, the stock market is an important market that helps raise funds for companies and create assets for investors, and raising funds through investments in the entire IPO series serves as a growth engine for startups and boosts innovation through entrepreneurship. Innovation and globalization of digital technology have further increased uncertainty in the stock market, but have also provided companies and investors with opportunities to create new value. In this regard, it is better to verify the investment behavior factors of young people looking for opportunities to realize expected profits through the stock market, where risks and opportunities coexist, and to investigate the potential to seize new opportunities and connect them to innovation activities. This will be the key to designing good policies.
 The purpose of this study is to examine whether the entrepreneurial attitude of creating new value through innovation activities even in the face of future uncertainty influences stock investment behavior. Startup competency, entrepreneurial intention, social values, and entrepreneurship education are We also examined whether there was a moderating effect. For this purpose, an empirical analysis of the research hypothesis was conducted targeting 215 college students representing the young population.
 Looking at the research results, first, it was confirmed that college students' entrepreneurial attitude has a positive influence on stock investment behavior. Second, the moderating effect of entrepreneurial capabilities was confirmed between entrepreneurial attitude and stock investment behavior. Third, the experience of taking entrepreneurship courses, which was examined as a control variable, confirmed that the more students took the course, the more their stock investment behavior increased.
 This study is significant in that it examined the cross-relationship between entrepreneurial attitude, education, and financial investment behavior from an entrepreneurial perspective rather than the investor perspective of existing research, and that college students' entrepreneurial attitude and resulting capabilities are important not only for starting a business, but also for starting a business. It also provided theoretical and practical implications that it could be applied as a means to achieve personal wealth.

Coup (September 12, 1980) in Turkey

The internal situation in Turkey worsened at the end of the seventies due to the conflict and clash of the Turkish left and right, in addition to the development of the Islamic movement, the Turkish left movement, and the armed Kurdish movement, and the emergence of economic problems such as widespread unemployment, deteriorating living conditions, decline in personal income, sit-ins and demonstrations by workers and the niqab. At the level of internal reasons that led to a coup (12 September 1980). In terms of external reasons, major political transformations occurred within the countries neighboring Turkey, such as the coming of Saddam Hussein to power in Iraq, the outbreak of the Iranian peoples’ revolution or the Iranian Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979, and finally the occupation of Afghanistan by Soviet Union forces. (1980) At that stage, there were concerns among the military establishment Turkish and protector of Kemalist principles.The concern of the United States of America about the weakness of the Turkish political system in the face of riots, violence, demonstrations and clashes in the streets, as well as American concerns about the dominance of Islamic and leftist movements over the reins of government in Turkey led to an agreement and a signal to the Turkish military establishment of the necessity of... a military coup and the restoration of political stability to the country. Therefore, the military establishment in Turkey carried out a military coup on the morning of September 12, 1980, with a military statement, taking control of government institutions and the reins of government, sending party leaders and politicians to prisons, and declaring a state of emergency in the country.In this research, we attempted to study the coup (September 12, 1980) in Turkey, especially its influential internal and external causes. We divided the research into two sections, the first section entitled (Internal causes of the coup on September 12, 1980) and the second section (External causes of the coup on September 12, 1980). We concluded the research with summary conclusions at the end of the research.

Rethinking Indonesia's Response to the Sino-U.S. Competition through the Lens of Constructivism

Abstract
 The emergence of China as a major power in the world has provoked turmoil among countries, particularly in the Asia-Pacific region. This situation was then responded to by the Western major powers, especially the United States and the United Kingdom, which carried out various maneuvers to counter China. Facing this situation, Indonesia has consistently conducted a middle-ground policy by not siding with one of the conflicting parties. Some scholars name this policy as a hedging strategy. Notwithstanding, existing research limits the explanations of the economic and security factors influencing Indonesia's position while overlooking non-material aspects. Against this background, this article seeks to fill this gap by analyzing Indonesia’s policy using the constructivist approach and explanatory qualitative research method. This research found three ideational aspects that shape the Indonesian government in issuing foreign policies related to major power competition in the Asia-Pacific, namely principles, values, and state identity. The concerned values and principles highlight that Indonesia adheres to Pancasila and “free and active” foreign policy principles which are primarily influenced by past colonialization and the struggle for independence. Meanwhile, identity refers to the international situation in which Indonesia has been exercising a vital role as the leader of global south countries.
 Keywords: China, constructivism, hedging strategy, Indonesia, the United States

Issues of Consular Protection in China: Take the Stranded Students in Ethiopia Event as an Example

In todays complex and volatile international situation, the world is experiencing political multi-polarization, overall peace and local turbulence in the world, major country relations are adjusting, and the role of the United Nations is gradually increasing. At the right time, China has put forward the Belt and Road Initiative in accordance with the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence. With the rapid development and change of the international situation and the continuous innovation and development of world information technology, some new phenomena and problems have gradually emerged in the scope of Chinas consular protection work. It is necessary to sort out and analyze solutions. In this paper, based on the related research results, combined with authors own deep thinking and practical experience, through the stranded students in Ethiopia event study the overseas interests protection problem.

The Beginning of Democracy in Eastern European Countries from the 1990s to the 2010s and Its Contemporary Crisis: Poland and the Czech Republic as Examples

In 1989, Poland and the Czech Republic almost simultaneously got rid of the socialist regime and gradually embarked on the road to Western democracy. They persisted in the global economic recession in 2008 and achieved economic leaps; however, under the impact of the refugee wave since 2011, conflicts that had been squeezed for decades broke out. For a time, populist forces were rampant in Eastern European countries. Faced with these populist forces, many people lost hope in democracy. This paper aims to present the beginning of the democratization process in Eastern European countries from the 1980s to the 1990s and the reasons for the rampant populist forces in Eastern Europe. The author believes that Eastern European society experienced triple changes in social structure, economic model, and political system at the end of the Cold War. These triple changes exacerbated the inner insecurity of the Eastern European people, and the insecurity planted the seeds of populism. The Soviet Unions long-term control in Eastern Europe led to peoples resistance to the Soviet Union and even the Russian nation. Since the second decade of the 21st century, with the arrival of the refugee waves and many other events in the international situation, this resistance against Russia rose to xenophobia, popularized by populist thoughts, used, and expanded by power. Finally, by analyzing the current status of populist parties in Eastern Europe, the author believes that these populist parties are trying to establish a contemporary nation-state with authoritarian solid rule in the 21st century.

An Exploration of U.S. Strategic Planning Capabilities of Diplomacy: A Case Study of the Two Administrations of Trump and Biden

Nowadays, the international environment is filled with increasing uncertainty due to the changes in the current international situation. Given the intensification of Sino-US competition in recent years and its long-term nature, the game between the two countries in the diplomatic field is also exceptionally intense, which makes it necessary to strengthen in-depth research on the diplomatic capabilities of the United States. This paper studies the strategic planning capabilities of diplomacy of the two administrations of Trump and Biden. It can be found that the United States has a relatively strong capacity for foreign strategic planning, but there is also variability due to the conflicting interests of domestic political groups, the governing styles of the leaders, and the orientation of the international system. The strategic planning capabilities of different governments have different political positions. How to balance the conflicting interests of all parties will also become an important part of U.S. diplomatic strategy.

Analysis of the Outbreak of the Cold War and Its Impact on Armed Conflict

The Cold War has always been a historical stage that has attracted much attention. This historical stage has profoundly affected todays international situation and peoples perception of great power competition. The Cold War lasted for nearly forty-four years. During this nearly half a century, the US and the Soviet Union used almost all means of confrontation except direct armed conflict to achieve the effect of suppressing each other. By analyzing past historical events and cases for example, this paper mainly discusses the causes of the Cold War and how it prevent armed conflict from becoming two topics of widespread concern, and it concludes that the outbreak of the Cold War was related to the anarchy among the great powers, and also related to the differences in economic systems between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. The Cold War prevented nuclear war but intensified conventional war to some extent. This paper aims to tell people that the Cold War is not an ideal state of the international community, all countries should learn lessons from the Cold War to avoid the recurrence of this unhealthy international pattern.