International Conflict Research Articles

State-building, nationalism, and education in Myanmar: a comparative study of two eras

ABSTRACT This article critically examines the role of education in state-building and nationalism in Myanmar by comparing the military socialist regime (1962–1988) with the National League for Democracy (NLD) government (2016–2021). While the NLD positioned its educational reforms as progressive and inclusive, this study argues that the underlying logic of education policy in both eras remained fundamentally similar. Using a comparative framework, the paper analyses policies across two eras related to education management, language of instruction, history curricula, and recognition of ethnic minority education. The article shows that both the socialist regime and NLD leveraged education to centralise control and promote Burman nationalism, often at the expense of ethnic diversity and minority inclusion. Despite differences in political ideology and rhetoric, both governments used education as a means of indoctrination and cultural assimilation, revealing the persistent limits of educational reform in contexts marked by internal conflict and competing nationalisms.

Experiences of Loneliness Among Gay Men: A Systematic Review and Meta-Synthesis

ABSTRACT Loneliness is a significant social and public health issue, particularly among gay men who often face unique challenges shaped by their social identities and minority status. These challenges often exacerbate feelings of isolation and exclusion, yet the specific ways in which gay men experience loneliness remain underexplored. This study aimed to offer insights for health professionals and policymakers via a systematic review and meta-synthesis. A comprehensive literature search was conducted in May 2024 across five major databases and gray literature to identify appropriate qualitative studies (i.e. if they focused on the experiences of loneliness among gay men, were qualitatively designed, and included participants over the age of 18). 72 studies, encompassing approximately 1335 participants were analyzed. Guided by Intersectionality Theory and the Minority Stress Model, data analysis generated three categories that impacted gay men’s experiences of loneliness. (1) external influences of discrimination (lack of support systems, cultural standards, geographic location), (2) internal conflicts (internalized homophobia, concealment, fear of rejection), and (3) coping mechanisms (sex, substance use, social life and connections, embracing solitude). The findings highlight the complex interplay between external pressures and internal struggles, as well as how intersecting identities shape the diverse experience of loneliness among gay men.

Plural masculinities at work: generational cohorts, organizational culture and men’s work–life choices

PurposeThis study explores how different conceptions of masculinity – ranging from traditional breadwinner models to more egalitarian frameworks – influence men’s engagement with work–life balance policies. It examines how generational differences intersect with supervisory attitudes and organizational culture in shaping men’s decisions to use family friendly policies.Design/methodology/approachA qualitative research design was adopted, involving semi-structured interviews with 45 men from three generational cohorts: Baby Boomers, Generation X and Millennials/Generation Z. The study applied an iterative, inductive analysis to explore how masculinities are expressed and negotiated in relation to work–life practices.FindingsThe analysis identifies three core themes: (1) masculinity continuum (traditional vs evolving), (2) supervisory and cultural norms and (3) internal conflict (career prioritization vs family engagement). Older participants tended to align with hegemonic masculinity and avoid policy use, while younger men embraced more egalitarian models. Leadership and workplace norms played a central role in reinforcing or challenging gendered expectations around work–life engagement.Practical implicationsOrganizations should move beyond policy availability and foster inclusive cultures where men feel supported in reconciling work and family roles. Supervisors play a crucial role in modeling alternative masculinities and legitimizing the use of family friendly policies, particularly in contexts where traditional norms persist.Originality/valueThis study contributes to work–family literature by integrating Connell’s theory of multiple masculinities with empirical insights on generational dynamics and organizational influence. It highlights how identity, leadership and culture interact to shape men’s engagement with work–life practices – an area often overlooked in both gender and organizational research.

Crises and educational prioritization

Crises such as armed conflicts and natural disasters usually have harmful effects on children’s education. However, they may also make the public more aware of the importance of education. During times of crisis, more people may realize that a good education helps to maintain or regain employment and earnings. Consequently, crises may raise the public’s educational prioritization. To test this hypothesis, the paper uses data on six types of crisis covering 50 countries. The types of crisis studied are natural disasters, internal and external conflicts as well as unemployment, inflation and banking crises. The regression results show that each type of crisis is associated with higher educational prioritization, corroborating the hypothesis. Except for unemployment crises, the magnitude of the estimated effects is substantial. The paper combines individual-level data from the World Values Survey with country-level data on crises and relevant national characteristics.

Nagaland Peace Accord And Its Relevance In Contemporary Times

The Nagaland Peace Accord, formally known as the Framework Agreement signed onAugust 3, 2015, represents a pivotal chapter in the history of India’s internal securityand conflict resolution efforts. This accord, signed between the Government of Indiaand the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (Isak-Muivah) or NSCN (IM), soughtto bring an end to decades of violent insurgency and unrest in the Naga-inhabitedareas of Northeast India. Although hailed as a breakthrough, the accord has not led toa conclusive peace settlement, and the issues surrounding Naga sovereignty, identity,and territorial integrity remain deeply contentious. This paper delves deep into thehistorical backdrop, political intricacies, societal implications, and the contemporaryrelevance of the peace accord. It attempts to provide a comprehensive analysis of howthe accord was shaped, its partial successes, its unresolved issues, and its broader impact on Indian federalism, ethnic politics, and regional security. Furthermore, thestudy includes case studies, stakeholder interviews, conflict statistics, and policyanalysis to enhance the depth of understanding. The relevance of this accordcontinues to evolve in today’s socio-political landscape, making it essential forcontemporary political discourse and policy planning.

Challenges of Social and Economic Transformation in Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness

Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness is a serious critique of colonialism. The novel shows its impacts, both economic and social, concerning the colonizers as well as the colonized people. This has been set against the backdrop of Congo to pinpoint the imposition of capitalist systems upon traditional African societies driven by brutal enforcement. Such contrasts between the insatiable greedy European economic interest and indigenous ways of life eventually translate into the local economy, social setup, and cultural identity. In its symbolic use, Conrad criticizes the exploitation of the natural resources of Africa, a metaphor for the suffering and degradation of the indigenous populations, through ivory. Indeed, their search for gains due to natural resources comes at the expense of humanity for the Africans, the enforced labor being central in such exploitation under inhuman conditions. The characters used, Kurtz and Marlow, reveal some sort of psychic influence that may emanate as an aftermath of imperialism. While Kurtz's descent into madness epitomizes the moral corruption and psychic disintegration that arise out of an unrestrained pursuit of economic profit, Marlow's journey depicts internal conflict and disillusion on the part of those who bear witness to the horrors of colonialism. Powerful though the critique of imperialism may be, in this novel there have been critical remarks regarding its Eurocentric position and its representation of African people as passive individuals with no agency. The absence of the narration of African voices undermines the multicategory of social and economic transformation that took place in the Congo and omits possibilities of resistance from those colonized. In any case, Conrad has relevant insight into the ethical dimension of colonialism through the forces of self-destruction driven by economic greed and the mission to civilize.

Kampung Pelangi Semarang: Its Success, Decline, and the Current Status of the Rainbow Village

There are many city blocks decorated with murals all over the world. Among them, those developed in the past 15 years in Indonesia have a distinctive feature: houses in slums have murals or are painted in rainbow colors. These villages are called rainbow villages, or _Kampung Pelangi_ in Indonesian. Wonosari village (_Kampung Wonosari_) in Semarang City became a rainbow village in 2017 under the slum eradication initiative called the _KOTAKU_ program. However, the success did not last long: activity began to decline around mid-2018 and stopped completely because of COVID-19. While many tourist destinations have regained their former bustle in the post-COVID-19 period, activities in _Kampung Pelangi Semarang_ have remained sluggish. This study aims to summarize as comprehensively as possible the efforts of _Kampung Pelangi Semarang_ and its progress up to the present, based on the existing studies and on-site surveys in 2024. The reasons for the initial success include its good location, its proximity to other tourist destinations, and the cooperation of many organizations, including the city of Semarang. The reasons for its gradual decline include the change in the relationship between stakeholders after the shift from top-down activities by the Semarang City to bottom-up activities by the people involved; the Tourism Awareness Group that took over the role of managing _Kampung Pelangi Semarang_ suffered the internal conflicts, resulting in the disruption of its activities. Finally, we overview the remaining issues when improving the slums by modifying Rainbow Village, and the requirements necessary for _Kampung Pelangi Semarang_ to regain its vitality.

The impact of the online disinhibition effect on the formation of an individual's virtual identity

The evolution of society is directly influenced by technological advancements, particularly in information and communication technologies. Their proliferation facilitates the transformation of social reality, the emergence of new forms of communication, and the evolution of social practices. Modern digital tools such as mobile devices, computers, and the internet shape novel modes of interaction that affect communicative processes. Globalization accelerates the development of social and communicative practices, transcending geographical and demographic boundaries while shaping individuals' daily lives, worldviews, and self-identities. This article explores the impact of the online disinhibition effect on the formation of virtual identity within the contemporary digital environment. This process entails individuals gradually distancing themselves from traditional social interactions in the real world and transitioning to virtual spaces, where they construct new roles and modes of engagement. The rise of social media, online gaming, forums, and various digital platforms has facilitated the creation and maintenance of these novel identities. Identity, as a complex psychological construct, develops through an individual's interaction with the social environment, encompassing both real and virtual domains. Psychological defense mechanisms play a significant role in this process, helping individuals manage internal conflicts, maintain a coherent self-concept, and adapt to external conditions. Within the digital sphere, mechanisms such as reality avoidance can contribute to the modification or concealment of personal attributes, thereby influencing self-perception and the perception of others. As a consequence of the online disinhibition effect, a new form of identity emerges, characterized by the intertwining of real and virtual experiences and the growing significance of social networks in shaping personal traits and status. However, this process also presents risks, including the erosion of real-world social connections, dependence on virtual validation for self-worth, and potential shifts in attitudes toward reality. Investigating the implications of these transformations for self-esteem, interpersonal relationships, and social adaptation in the context of increasing digitalization remains a pertinent area of research.

Act East Policy and ASEAN Connectivity: Political Turmoil and Security Challenges in India’s North East

India’s Act East Policy represents a strategic and economic blueprint to position the country as a regional power in Southeast Asia through enhanced connectivity and cooperation with ASEAN member states. North East India, sharing long international borders and holding immense geostrategic value, plays a pivotal role in this framework. However, the region is entrenched in political instability, ethnic conflict, insurgent activity, and underdevelopment, which collectively challenge the policy's implementation. This article examines the security, political, and structural constraints within the North East that hinder the realisation of India’s connectivity vision with ASEAN. It further explores the implications of militarisation, governance deficits, and cross-border pressures, offering critical insights and policy recommendations for reconciling internal conflict with external engagement.

Modeling the Factors Influencing the Occurrence of Economic Crises in Sudan Using Logistic Regression (2011–2023)

This study aimed to determine the relationship between political changes, internal conflicts, inflation, and foreign investment growth with the occurrence of economic crises. The impact of political and economic variables on economic crises in Sudan was analyzed using an appropriate statistical model. Logistic regression was employed to examine the effects of these variables. The results indicated that political changes and internal conflicts significantly influence the likelihood of economic crises. Additionally, an increase in foreign investment positively affects the probability of economic crises, while inflation showed no significant impact on the occurrence of economic crises in Sudan. Furthermore, logistic regression demonstrated its efficiency in analyzing the factors influencing economic crises by accurately identifying the most impactful variables. The study recommended enhancing political stability and resolving internal conflicts. It also suggested that the government should adopt effective policies to control inflation and regulate foreign direct investment. Moreover, the study emphasized the importance of developing advanced analytical models that integrate time series models with logistic regression for economic crisis analysis. Additionally, it recommended utilizing logistic regression in economic policies as a predictive tool to assist policymakers in taking preventive measures against potential crises

From survival instinct to religious belief: Socio-systems analysis in a global context

In the context of globalization, religion, as a complex belief system encompassing social, economic, and political aspects, is undergoing a process of transformation and innovation. This transformation is analyzed from the perspectives of social philosophy and humanistic philosophy to clarify the interaction between religious life and human life. Here, the decline of faith in humanity promotes faith in religion, creating cohesion among people of the same faith, while at the same time causing internal division and conflict. The article focuses on several main issues: the nature of religious faith as opposed to faith in humanity; the division between clergy and believers, and between theists and atheists; the impact of globalization on religious conversion; the role of religion in maintaining social morality and the possibility of its exploitation for political and economic purposes; the trend of conversion and the emergence of new forms of belief. Through analysis, comparison, and especially the inversion method, the article clarifies the relationships between cause and effect, freedom and necessity, ability and need, means and ends, and subject and product in religious life. The research results show that religious conversion in the era of globalization is an inevitable process, reflecting changes in faith, culture, and society. The article proposes a new approach to interreligious dialogue and religious studies from the humanistic and social philosophy methodology, aiming to build a peaceful society and respect differences.

Boosting popularity: Folk theories and algorithmic resistance of visibility contests in the comment sections

This study examines the collective actions of Chinese netizens in contesting algorithm visibility through popularity-boosting comments. Employing a netnographic approach within the theoretical frameworks of algorithm resistance and folk theories, the research analyzes popularity-boosting comments ( N = 900) and discussions regarding these practices ( N = 492) on Douyin, Xiaohongshu, and Weibo. The findings reveal that algorithmic resistance effectively sustains the lifecycle of posts and extends their dissemination. Netizens primarily engage in this resistance along two pathways: Within and beyond the algorithmic framework. Within the framework, conflicting folk theories trigger netizens’ internal power struggles, undermining the consistency and continuity of collective algorithmic resistance. Beyond the algorithmic framework, strategies such as creating viral memes and manually commenting on popular posts about trending events introduce innovative forms of algorithmic resistance. However, overall, regardless of whether within or beyond the algorithmic framework, netizens’ algorithmic resistance behavior is characterized by internal conflicts and relatively loose collective action. This study offers new insights into expanding the concept of algorithmic resistance, enriching the collective algorithmic resistance behaviors of netizens, and the negotiation of conflicting folk theories within those groups. It provides important implications for future research on the complex power struggles between algorithms and netizens.

IMAGES AND SYMBOLS OF NATURALISTIC FLOW IN “SISTER CARRIE

This article explores the naturalistic elements in Theodore Dreiser’s Sister Carrie, focusing on the main characters and the symbolic imagery used to reflect the interplay between individual desires and societal forces. Through the character of Carrie Meeber and her journey from rural obscurity to urban prominence, Dreiser illustrates the principles of naturalism particularly environmental determinism, social pressure, and innate human drives. The analysis also considers the downfall of George Hurstwood as a complementary narrative showcasing the destructive impact of societal expectations and internal conflict. Furthermore, symbolic representations such as the cityscape and theatrical imagery are examined for their role in emphasizing the themes of moral ambiguity and the illusions of material success. The study underscores how Sister Carrie critiques the rigid class structures and moral codes of late 19th-century America, presenting a vivid portrayal of human struggle within the naturalistic literary tradition.

Pendekatan Psikologi Sastra dalam Mengkaji Naskah Drama Satu Babak Berjudul “Bentrokan dalam Asrama Karya Achdiat Karta Mihardja”

This article examines a one-act play entitled “Bentrok dalam Asrama” by Achdiat Karta Mihardja with a literary psychology approach, specifically Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis theory. This research aims to reveal the personality dynamics of the characters through the interaction of id, ego, and superego, as well as to understand the internal and external conflicts experienced by each character. The method used is descriptive qualitative with analysis techniques in the form of literature study of dialog, monologue, and conflicts that arise in the drama. The results of the analysis show that Hasan and Hadi dominate the id aspect through impulsive and manipulative actions, while Anas reflects a strong superego through his patient and empathetic attitude. Hadi's character experiences significant ego development as the story progresses. The play not only depicts conflicts between characters, but also represents complex inner conflicts as a reflection of human psychological dynamics. This research enriches the understanding of the play by emphasizing the importance of the literary psychology approach in analyzing the personality and conflict of characters in literary works.

Id, Ego, and Superego in The Movie John Wick (2014): A Character Analysis

This study analyzes the character of John Wick in the film "John Wick" (2014) by using Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory which includes Id, Ego, and Superego. The method used is descriptive qualitative by collecting in-depth data on how these three personality elements influence Wick's actions and decisions. The results of the analysis show that John Wick's Id, which represents basic drives such as revenge and anger, triggers extreme actions after the death of his wife and the killing of his dog. Wick's ego acts as a mediator that considers the reality and consequences of his actions, seen in the systematic and planned way he carries out his revenge. Wick's Superego, which includes moral and ethical values, directs his actions to adhere to certain moral codes, such as respecting the rules of the Continental Hotel. Overall, the interaction between the Id, Ego, and Superego in John Wick shows that although his actions are driven by the desire for revenge, he is also guided by rational considerations and moral values. This research provides insight into how the main character's internal conflict can affect the behavior and plot development in the movie "John Wick" (2014). Keywords: John Wick, Psychoanalysis, Id, Ego, Superego

THE COMPLEX INTERPLAY BETWEEN CHINA’S ETHNIC CONFLICTS, NATIONAL SECURITY AND GRAND STRATEGY

The relationship between internal conflicts and national strategic decision-making remains complex and often unclear. This article examines the case of Xinjiang to explore the intricate connections between ethnic conflicts, national security, and China’s Grand Strategy—factors that have significantly shaped the global order. Through an extensive literature review, the study highlights ethnic conflicts particularly in Xinjiang, serve as a primary driver for China’s Grand Strategy, emphasizing national security and strategic interests. Moreover, the findings suggest that military and economic imperatives play a crucial role in designing this strategy, particularly through the implementation of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), which intends to promote regional development and stability in the state. The study demonstrates that ethnic conflicts intensify the state’s focus on national security, influencing key policy-making decisions. Ultimately, it argues that China’s Grand Strategy is designed to ensure both national survival and sustained prosperity.

GEOPOLITICAL AND STRATEGIC ANALYSIS OF THE SYRIAN PROBLEM AFTER REGIME CHANGE

The Syrian crisis emerged as an extension of the popular uprisings that began in 2011 under the influence of the Arab Spring and quickly turned into an international conflict. In this process, global actors—including Iran, Russia, the United States, and the European Union—intervened in the Syrian civil war, each pursuing distinct strategic objectives. Turkey, on the other hand, has been directly affected by the developments in Syria due to its geographical proximity and historical ties, and has developed security-oriented policies in the face of this crisis. Turkey's policies have ranged from cross-border military operations to humanitarian aid initiatives, from diplomatic efforts to the management of the refugee crisis. The fall of Bashar al-Assad's regime in late 2024 affected not only Syria's internal equations, but also regional and global geopolitical dynamics. This study, titled "Geopolitical and Strategic Analysis of the Syrian Question after the Regime Change," analyzes the historical development of the Syrian crisis, the positions of regional actors, and Turkey's strategic moves in this process. It analyzes the regional security implications of Turkey's policy in Syria and assesses the interests of the United States, Russia, and Israel in this process. Finally, the article offers future prospects for Turkey in the context of the opportunities and challenges it faces in Syria.

성장기 가정폭력을 경험한 엄마의 자녀 양육에 대한 자문화기술지

Objectives The purpose of this study is to explore the psychological and emotional changes experienced by mothers who have suffered domestic violence during childhood as they raise their own children after marriage. Additionally, this study aims to examine the impact of childhood domestic violence trauma on parenting and identify key factors that contribute to the healing and recovery of both mothers and children, ultimately seeking ways to foster a healthy parent-child relationship. Methods This study employed an autobiographical ethnographic research method. The researcher collected and analyzed various data, including personal experiences of domestic violence during childhood, parenting experiences, and journal entries. Based on these data, the study explored the internal conflicts and psychological healing processes influenced by experiences of domestic violence in the parenting journey. Results Four essential themes emerged from the findings: “Pebbles Cast on the Road,” “Struggling in the Shadows of Violence,” “Inherited Shadows of Violence,” and “A New Dream Toward Healing.” These themes illustrate the impact of childhood domestic violence experiences on parenting and vividly depict the inner journey of mothers striving to overcome these influences. Conclusions Understanding and healing their psychological state is essential for parents who have experienced domestic violence before raising their children. This study proposes psychological healing and coping strategies to prevent the transmission of negative effects to children. Furthermore, it suggests practical and actionable methods to break the cycle of violence. The findings provide a valuable foundation for overcoming the consequences of domestic violence and fulfilling healthy parental roles.

THE EFFECT OF THE ONGOING RUSSIA-UKRAINE WAR ON INTERGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS

The conflict that continues between Russia and Ukraine has greatly influenced the function of intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) in the realm of international relations. Charged with the essential duty of leading efforts to establish and maintain peace on a global scale, IGOs face new challenges. The ongoing war in Ukraine undoubtedly poses a risk to harmonious international relations. Consequently, the anticipated and established roles of IGOs, as outlined by international legal provisions, are brought into focus for examination in terms of how they address such conflicts. Informed by this comprehension, the primary objective of this research is to investigate the involvement of IGOs within the framework of the ongoing conflict between Russia and Ukraine, considering the relevant diplomatic, economic, and military interactions. This analysis will particularly focus on the activities of the United Nations (UN), the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and the European Union (EU). This study aims to comprehend the vital roles played by selected IGOs in addressing the ongoing international conflicts of the 21st century, specifically through an analysis of their actions concerning the Russia-Ukraine war.

유럽 속의 미국 : 헨리 제임스의 「데이지 밀러」에서 공적·사적 공간의 경계와 충돌

Daisy Miller, written by Henry James, presents the international theme by showing the cultural conflicts between Europe and America. The aim of this paper is to analyze the change of Winterbourne's inner consciousness caused in the correlation between some spaces and the characters that affects him to change his attitude towards the world around himself and his acquaintances. The aspects of Winterbourne's inner conflicts are analyzed according to his observing Daisy. Their consciousness and identities will be totally considered through understanding their point of views to each other. In addition, by analyzing the relationship between public and private space and characters, and based on the aspects of international conflict presented in Winterbourne’s internal and external experiences observing the main character Daisy, we will attempt to establish a new interpretation of “America in Europe.” This will produce a variety of interpretation points that can comprehensively understand other cultures through various possibilities and new interpretations of the work.