Interface Deformation Research Articles

Bubble Drainage Assisted Fabrication of Polyamide Membranes with Crater-like Structures for Efficient Desalination.

Bubble drainage (BD) occurs in various natural phenomena and industrial activities, in which bubbles rise toward the water surface and create a progressively thinned two-sided liquid film, called a lamella. Surfactant, as an important regulator in the BD process, not only assembles on both sides of the lamellae, generating a configuration of lamellae sandwiched by monolayers of surfactants (lamellae/MS), but also induces interfacial deformation by lowering interfacial tension. Herein, we developed a strategy of BD assisted interfacial polymerization for the fabrication of polyamide (PA) membranes. The regulated interfacial deformation at the water-oil interface produced a membrane with crater-like structures, which greatly increased the surface area of the PA membrane. Moreover, the lamellae/MS configuration served as a reservoir to spontaneously enrich amine monomers and thus modulate the diffusion-reaction kinetics. The resulting PA membranes exhibited superior separation performance with a water permeance of 44.7 L m-2 h-1 bar-1 and a Na2SO4 rejection of 99.2%.

On interfacial deformation and resistance characteristics over superhydrophobic surfaces: A numerical study

The air/water interface, known as the plastron, entrapped in submerged superhydrophobic surfaces (SHSs), plays a crucial role in underwater drag reduction. However, the plastron can be easily deformed or collapsed by turbulent flow, leading to decreased drag reduction or even an increase in drag. Most previous numerical studies have simplified these interfaces as idealized flat or curved rigid boundaries. To thoroughly investigate the interfacial behavior of SHSs, this study presents a numerical comparison between ideal and dynamic interfaces. The plastron undergoes regular oscillations after a brief adaptation period, transitioning between convex, nearly flat, and concave shapes. During the oscillatory decay, the dynamic properties of the interface modify the surface drag of the SHSs by both affecting the viscous drag and introducing pressure drag. The viscous drag is affected in two main ways. First, the momentum exchange across the dynamic interface is enhanced due to the roughness-like effect, leading to an increased viscous drag in groove region. Second, the trailing interfaces induce step flows and secondary flows downstream of the grooves, creating regions of nonuniform shear stresses. Consequently, the viscous drag of the downstream walls is slightly reduced. Overall, for convex and nearly flat interfaces, the drag increase within the groove region outweighs the drag reduction at the downstream walls, resulting in a total drag increase in 47.3% and 29.8%, respectively. Conversely, for concave interfaces, the drag increase within the groove region is smaller than the drag reduction at the downstream walls, leading to a 9.8% decrease in total drag.

Tuning the Interfacial Deformation of Gliadin-Flaxseed Gum Complex Particles for Improving the Foam Stability

Gliadin nanoparticle (GNP) is a promising foaming agent, but its application is hindered by the limited foam stability under low acidic conditions. Herein, we attempted to tune the foam stability of GNP by coating it with flaxseed gum (FG) and investigated the structure, interfacial behaviors, and foam functionality of gliadin-FG (GFG) particles at pH 4.5. Results showed that the formation of GFG complex particles was driven by an electrostatic interaction between positive charge patches on the surface of GNP (~17 mV) and negative charges in FG molecule (~−13 mV) at all tested ratios. The addition of appropriate amounts of FG (1:0.05) effectively improved the foam stability of GNP. This was because GFG with larger sizes and lower surface charge possessed higher rigidity after coating with FG. When they adsorbed at the air/water interface, their deformation process was slower than that of GNP, as indicated by interfacial dilatational rheology and cryo-SEM, and the covered particles seemed to be more closely distributed to form solid-like and dense interfacial films. Notably, the addition of FG at a higher ratio (1:0.3) promoted the foam stability of GNP by about five folds because the larger GFG with suitable flexibility and wettability could form a stiff interface layer with more significant elastic response, and the unabsorbed particles and FG could form a gel-like network structure in the continuous phase. These characteristics effectively prevented foam disproportionation and coalescence, as well as retard the drainage. Our findings demonstrate that coating GNPs with FG is an effective approach to improve their application in foamed foods.

Numerical simulation of phase transition with the hyperbolic Godunov-Peshkov-Romenski model

In this paper, a thermodynamically consistent numerical solution of the interfacial Riemann problem for the first-order hyperbolic continuum model of Godunov, Peshkov and Romenski (GPR model) is presented. In the presence of phase transition, interfacial physics are governed by molecular interaction on a microscopic scale, beyond the scope of the macroscopic continuum model in the bulk phases. The developed approximate two-phase Riemann solvers tackle this multi-scale problem, by incorporating a local thermodynamic model to predict the interfacial entropy production. Using phenomenological relations of non-equilibrium thermodynamics, interfacial mass and heat fluxes are derived from the entropy production and provide closure at the phase boundary. We employ the proposed Riemann solvers in an efficient sharp interface level-set Ghost-Fluid framework to provide coupling conditions at phase interfaces under phase transition. As a single-phase benchmark, a Rayleigh-Bénard convection is studied to compare the hyperbolic thermal relaxation formulation of the GPR model against the hyperbolic-parabolic Euler-Fourier system. The novel interfacial Riemann solvers are validated against molecular dynamics simulations of evaporating shock tubes with the Lennard-Jones shifted and truncated potential. On a macroscopic scale, evaporating shock tubes are computed for the material n-Dodecane and compared against Euler-Fourier results. Finally, the efficiency and robustness of the scheme is demonstrated with shock-droplet interaction simulations that involve both phase transfer and surface tension, while featuring severe interface deformations.

IRROTATIONAL FLOW DUE TO FORCED OSCILLATIONS OF A BUBBLE

Abstract The behaviour of an axisymmetric bubble in a pure liquid forced by an acoustic pressure field is analysed. The bubble is assumed to have a sharp deformable interface, which is subject both to surface tension and to Rayleigh viscosity damping. Two modelling regimes are considered. The first is a linearized solution, based on the assumption of small axisymmetric deformations to an otherwise spherical bubble. The second involves a semi-numerical solution of the fully nonlinear problem, using a novel spectral method of high accuracy. For large-amplitude nonspherical bubble oscillations, the fully nonlinear solutions show that a complicated resonance structure is possible and that curvature singularities may occur at the interface, even in the presence of surface tension. Rayleigh viscosity at the interface prevents singularity formation, but eventually causes the bubble to become purely spherical unless shape-mode resonances occur. An extended analysis is also presented for purely spherical bubbles, which allows for a more detailed study of the effects of resonance and the Rayleigh viscosity at the bubble surface.

Computational Study of Shocked V-Shaped N2/SF6 Interface across Varying Mach Numbers

The Mach number effect on the Richtmyer–Meshkov instability (RMI) evolution of the shocked V-shaped N2/SF6 interface is numerically studied in this research. Four distinct Mach numbers are taken into consideration for this purpose: Ms=1.12,1.22,1.42, and 1.62. A two-dimensional space of compressible two-component Euler equations is simulated using a high-order modal discontinuous Galerkin approach to computational simulations. The numerical results show good consistency when compared to the available experimental data. The computational results show that the RMI evolution in the shocked V-shaped N2/SF6 interface is critically dependent on the Mach number. The flow field, interface deformation, intricate wave patterns, inward jet development, and vorticity generation are all strongly impacted by the shock Mach number. As the Mach number increases, the V-shaped interface deforms differently, and the distance between the Mach stem and the triple points varies depending on the Mach number. Compared to lower Mach numbers, higher ones produce larger rolled-up vortex chains. A thorough analysis of the Mach number effect identifies the factors that propel the creation of vorticity during the interaction phase. Moreover, kinetic energy and enstrophy both dramatically rise with increasing Mach number. Lastly, a detailed analysis is carried out to determine how the Mach number affects the temporal variations in the V-shaped interface’s features.

Numerical Study of Shock Wave Interaction with V-Shaped Heavy/Light Interface

This paper investigates numerically the shock wave interaction with a V-shaped heavy/light interface. For numerical simulations, we choose six distinct vertex angles (θ=40∘,60∘,90∘,120∘,150∘, and 170∘), five distinct shock wave strengths (Ms=1.12,1.22,1.30,1.60, and 2.0), and three different Atwood numbers (At=−0.32,−0.77, and −0.87). A two-dimensional space of compressible two-component Euler equations are solved using a third-order modal discontinuous Galerkin approach for the simulations. The present findings demonstrate that the vertex angle has a crucial influence on the shock wave interaction with the V-shaped heavy/light interface. The vertex angle significantly affects the flow field, interface deformation, wave patterns, spike generation, and vorticity production. As the vertex angle decreases, the vorticity production becomes more dominant. A thorough analysis of the vertex angle effect identifies the factors that propel the creation of vorticity during the interaction phase. Notably, smaller vertex angles lead to stronger vorticity generation due to a steeper density gradient, while larger angles result in weaker, more dispersed vorticity and a less complex interaction. Moreover, kinetic energy and enstrophy both dramatically rise with decreasing vortex angles. A detailed analysis is also carried out to analyze the vertex angle effects on the temporal variations of interface features. Finally, the impacts of different Mach and Atwood numbers on the V-shaped interface are briefly presented.

Confinement by liquid-liquid interface replicates in vivo neutrophil deformations and elicits bleb based migration.

Leukocytes navigate through interstitial spaces resulting in deformation of both the motile leukocytes and surrounding cells. Creating an in vitro system that models the deformable cellular environment encountered in vivo has been challenging. Here, we engineer microchannels with a liquid-liquid interface that exerts confining pressures (200-3000 Pa) similar to cells in tissues, and, thus, is deformable by cell generated forces. Consequently, the balance between migratory cell-generated and interfacial pressures determines the degree of confinement. Pioneer cells that first contact the interfacial barrier require greater deformation forces to forge a path for migration, and as a result migrate slower than trailing cells. Critically, resistive pressures are tunable by controlling the curvature of the liquid interface, which regulates motility. By granting cells autonomy in determining their confinement, and tuning environmental resistance, interfacial deformations are made to match those of surrounding cells in vivo during interstitial neutrophil migration in a larval zebrafish model. We discover that, in this context, neutrophils employ a bleb-based mechanism of force generation to deform a barrier exerting cell-scale confining pressures.

Acoustic reflector remotely tunable by the acoustic radiation force

Specifically structured surface can be used to control acoustic waves reflection enabling wavefront shaping tailored for desired applications such as imaging or cloaking. With the development of metasurfaces, which enable changing the reflection of an incident acoustic wave at an interface using a sub-wavelength structure, it is possible to explore new frontiers of Snell-Descartes laws. However, the control over wave propagation is pre-established when using fixed structures, directing research towards metasurfaces reconfigurable in both time and space. This work proposes a metamaterial architecture using deformations of a fluid interface between two media through the acoustic radiation pressure (ARP). An analytical and numerical study is conducted to assess the phase shift on airborne acoustic wave induced by a unit cell featuring a Helmholtz resonator tuned by the water surface elevation induced by ARP. The possibility to program in real-time the phase shift is successfully tested experimentally for an incident wave of frequency 3400 Hz. The extension to a metasurface is introduced through the juxtaposition of 15 unit cell. A retroreflection effect is then numerically demonstrated, highlighting the effectiveness of the proposed approach. This concept of real-time and non-contact reconfigurable metasurface opens new possibilities for beam deflection, acoustic holography or information encoding.

Heat transfer and stratification behaviors of internally heated double-layer fluids systems under swinging conditions

To evaluate the safety designs aimed at the stratified corium pools for nuclear reactors applied in the marine environment, it’s important to carry out research on the convection related phenomena inside a layered fluids system under motion conditions. Thus, in this paper, the macroscopic characteristics of heat transfer and stratification for the double-layer fluids systems with internal heat source under motion conditions were studied through visualization experiments, and due to the complexity of actual ocean motions, only swinging motions were considered. In this research, a new dimensionless number Ris was proposed to quantify the effects of swinging motions, which represents the ratio of the characteristic buoyancy to the characteristic centrifugal force caused by swinging motions. Based on experimental results, swinging motions exert the most significant impacts on the layered systems when Ris is less than 1. In this case, the ratio of maximum temperature fT and the ratio of temperature difference between the two layers fΔT both dropped below 0.5, while the ratio of peak heat transfer capacity fQ-peak raised above 1.5, with the ratio of stable heat transfer capacity fQ-stable most probably lying within the range of 1.06 to 1.2. Additionally, several representative types of macroscopic interface deformation or stratification instability was observed, and phenomenon of mixing could appear between the double-layer fluids under intense-enough swinging conditions. These phenomena imply the significantly intensified forced convection inside the layered systems, which explains the sharply decreased temperature difference and the greatly enhanced heat transfer capacity during high-intensity swinging motions. By contrast, when Ris becomes larger than 10, the values of fΔT、fΔT and fQ-peak will be approaching to 1.0, and relatively stable stratification of the layered systems can be maintained, which indicates the increasingly negligible impacts of swinging motions in such cases. Besides, it was found that an increase in the thickness of either the lower-layer or the upper fluid also helped restrain interface deformation and enhanced the stratification stability of the layered systems.

On the influence of heat-induced evaporation over interfacial atomization driven by surface acoustic waves

In this work, the influence of evaporative flux over the atomization driven by surface acoustic waves (SAWs) of a Newtonian water drop is studied. The drop is placed on a heated substrate at constant temperature, higher than the saturation temperature at a given vapor pressure. In this manner, an interfacial temperature distribution arises along the drop free surface in terms evaporative mass flux and vapor recoil, which repercussion over aerosol size is studied by determining the asymptotic evolution equation governing the acoustically driven free surface. At such scenario, the connection between surface tension and temperature is also considered; thus, thermocapillary flow is incorporated into our drop model, described in terms of fundamental parameters, like the evaporation number, Marangoni number, and acoustic capillary number. Numerical solution of the evolution equation led us to obtain a simplified representation of the drop interfacial deformation mechanism, capable of predicting atomization and portraying the influence of evaporation over atomization. Subsequent analysis shows that the incorporation of evaporation at SAW atomization traduces in normal stresses counteracting the acoustic and thermocapillary effect, leading to the development of smaller drop aspect ratios with respect to the no-evaporative case. Being aware that the aerosol size is deeply related to the aspect ratio, we propose an analytical expression to estimate aerosol diameter under evaporative conditions. The results show that aspect ratio reduction leads to a decrement on aerosol size, up to two orders of magnitude, with respect to the no-evaporative case. Our study is a first approach providing insight about the importance of evaporation on aerosol regulation at SAW atomization.

Evaluation on the diffusion-fusion properties and interfacial mechanical behavior of virgin and aged asphalt

To investigate the regeneration mechanisms of rejuvenated asphalt mixtures, molecular simulation techniques were employed to research virgin and aged asphalt's fusion characteristics and interface mechanical properties. The blended zone was identified based on relative density distribution, and a molecular-scale calculation method for the Degree of binder Blended (DOB) between virgin and aged asphalt was proposed. Finally, the influence of DOB on the mechanical properties of the asphalt-aggregate interface was evaluated through interface pull-out tests. The results revealed that the proposed molecular-scale DOB calculation method effectively assessed the blending effectiveness between virgin and aged asphalt. Higher degrees of asphalt aging made it more challenging for aged asphalt to fuse with virgin asphalt, while elevated temperatures facilitated diffusion fusion between them. Under tensile loading, initial cracks were primarily initiated from the rejuvenated asphalt's blended zone. This region represented the weakest area within the interface system and was prone to fracture under load. The increase in DOB significantly improved the interfacial properties of recycled asphalt, with the increase in DOB the interfacial tensile strength increased by 4%–14% and the fracture energy increased by 10%–19%. However, this enhancement effect diminished with an increased degree of asphalt aging. At the molecular scale, increasing DOB improved the interface strength and deformation resistance of rejuvenated asphalt. The molecular simulation results provide theoretical guidance for evaluating the fusion degree of aged asphalt in RAP materials and determining the utilization efficiency of aged asphalt.

Electrochemical-mechanical coupled interfacial degradation model of Ternary polymer composite cathodes in all-solid-state batteries

Despite significant attention focused on the composite cathode composed of active particles, which is considered to increase the interfacial areas and satisfy high areal load, suffers from interfacial issues. In this article, we formulate an electrochemical-mechanical model of LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) composite cathode coupling the relations between interfacial degradation, charge transformation, diffusion transport, and mechanical deformation under cyclic loads. Based on the transition state theory, we regard the interfacial degradation as an energy barrier dependent on the interfacial debonding state. Physical mismatch due to chemical expansion results in interfacial current distinction, anisotropic Li diffusion and excessive local stress. Compared to single-crystal NMC particles, the effect of interfacial separation and internal cracks triggers an extremely nonuniformity of Li distribution within random orientation polycrystalline-type particles. The external pressure in the range of operation can cause mechanical deformation to fill in the interface vacancies, which effectively alleviates the rapid growth of damage and provides a better cyclic performance. Moreover, soft polymer-based solid electrolytes take advantage of their flexible property to deal with solid-solid contact, providing considerable maintenance of interface stability. This present framework reveals the failure mechanism with electrochemical-mechanical coupled relations for composite cathode materials and broadens the design guidance toward improving interfacial integrity.

OneTip: A Soft Tactile Interface for 6-D Fingertip Pose Acquisition in Human-Computer Interaction

Advances in display technology have created the need for more efficient and natural multi-degree-of-freedom interaction devices. The movement of a single fingertip has six degrees of freedom (DOFs), but traditional rigid touchscreens usually sense only 2-D information. This article proposes a new deformable tactile interface, OneTip, for single-fingertip human-computer interaction with 6 DOFs. It is manufactured based on the principle of vision-based tactile sensing using virtual stereoscopic cameras, and its size is about twice that of a thumb. The contact surface of OneTip has a specially designed structure and material to mimic the sensitivity and softness of human skin. Also, OneTip employs a new sensing method to address the problem of soft fingertip pose estimation (measuring relative change only) with incipient slip effects. Experiments show that OneTip has good 6-D pose estimation accuracy, with root mean square errors (RMSE) of translation and rotation not exceeding 0.1mm and 2.6°, respectively, within the linear interval (x and y: −1.2 to 1.2mm; z: 0 to 3mm; yaw: −15 to 15deg; pitch and roll: −40 to 40deg). Experiments were also conducted to explore the application of OneTip in typical virtual manipulation tasks and the possibility of combining it with other interaction devices.

Highly stable anode-free sodium batteries enabled by mechanically deformable nucleation interface

Anode-free sodium metal batteries (AFNMBs) with zero excess sodium offer superior energy density, lower cell cost, and design practicality for next-generation EVs and other applications. However, reaching consistent high Coulombic efficiency (CE) greater than 99.9 % remains a challenge for this battery architecture. In this study, our findings support that using a soft Li metal interface under a current collector coated with a thin carbon black nucleation layer facilitates extremely stable nucleation and growth of Na metal by locally distributing pressure to mitigate SEI or dead sodium formation. Specifically, our findings demonstrate Na half cells with stable CE of 99.98 % over 500 cycles at 0.5 mA/cm2. Further, zero-excess sodium full cell AFNMBs with Na3V2(PO4)3 cathodes exhibit total first cycle formation loss of only 5.4 % at C/10 rates, which is over two times lower than commercial Li-ion cells, with capacity retention of 97.4 % after 100 cycles at 0.5 mA cm-2 (∼ C/3) and average round-trip charge efficiency of 99.97 %.

Effect of Hot-rolling Deformation on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Nd2Fe14Bp/Al-5Co-0.4Sm Composites

Nd2Fe14Bp/Al-5Co-0.4Sm composites were prepared via microwave sintering and hot rolling. The effects of hot-rolling deformation on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Nd2Fe14Bp/Al-5Co-0.4Sm composites were studied. The results showed that the internal porosity of the composites significantly decreased when the hot-rolling deformation rate was 45%. The Nd2Fe14B particles were broken into fine particles under rolling stress. Consequently, the particles were uniformly distributed. Moreover, numerous high-density dislocations were observed around the particles, which improved the strength and toughness of the material. When the deformation rate was 45%, the micro-nano hardness and elastic modulus of the interface of the composites were 3.6 and 91 GPa, respectively. The interfacial deformation resistance of the composites was significantly higher than that of the composites before rolling. The tensile strength of Nd2Fe14Bp/Al-5Co-0.4Sm composites increased as the deformation rate increased, whereas the elongation gradually decreased. Furthermore, when the deformation rate was 45%, the tensile strength and elongation of the composites were 161 MPa and 6.5%, respectively. The tensile strength was 14.2% higher than that of the unrolled sample.

Interfacial inhomogeneous plastic deformation during rotary friction welding of dissimilar AA2219-SS321 joint combination with AA6061 interlayer

This research investigates the inherent radial non-uniformity within the rotary friction welding process, particularly concerning microstructure attributes like grain size, grain boundaries, misorientation angles, and interlayer presence along the radial axis. SS321-AA2219 rotary friction welding was carried out with and without an AA6061 interlayer. The numerical thermal model suggests increase in temperatures from the center to the periphery, due to non-uniform heat generation. Also, dissimilar material across the interface resulted in an asymmetric temperature profile along axial direction. Plastic deformation on the Aluminum side suggests dynamic recrystallization and grain refinement, whereas pronounced low-angle grain boundary (LAGB) formation near the SS side interface validates dynamic recovery. A radial non-uniformity in microstructure is observed, with metrics such as average grain size, LAGB fraction, and misorientation showing an increase from the center towards the periphery. The insertion of an interlayer alters process dynamics, manifesting in reduced temperatures and heightened forces, resulting in a more consolidated joint by enhancing the strength by 31 %. Interdiffusion of elements across the interface formed Fe-Al intermetallic compounds (IMC) confirmed with X ray diffraction. Fractography analysis elucidates the presence of rubbing marks and facet surfaces in interlayer-less joints, while joints with interlayer display sticking and dimples.

Effect of Ni on the mechanical and corrosion properties of TiC-reinforced steel matrix composites

Particle-reinforced steel matrix composites typically lead to a decrease in corrosion resistance while enhancing mechanical properties. However, steel matrix composites for marine applications require superior mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. In this study, 8 vol% TiC/Fe–C composites were prepared using the master alloy method. The effects of Ni contents (0, 1.2 wt%, 1.6 wt%, 2.0 wt%, and 2.4 wt%) on the mechanical and corrosion properties of the composites were evaluated. Results indicated that the tensile strength, elongation, and corrosion resistance of the composites initially increased and then decreased with increasing Ni content. The σUTS and εf of Ni2.0 composites increased from 536 MPa and 4.1 % for Ni0 to 1100 MPa and 9.0 %, respectively. The icorr and corrosion rate of the Ni2.0 composite were 0.440 μA/cm2 and 0.0057 mm/year, respectively. The mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of TiC particle-reinforced steel matrix composites were simultaneously enhanced by the addition of 2.0 wt% Ni. The increase in strength is mainly attributed to changes in thermal mismatch resulting from Ni addition, solid solution strengthening of the Fe–Ni solid solution, and improved interface compatibility between the TiC particles and the matrix, thus enhancing load transfer efficiency. The increase in plasticity can be attributed to the significant improvement in interface deformation compatibility with Ni addition. The increase in corrosion resistance primarily results from the steel matrix alloying, uniform distribution of TiC particles, and strong interface bonding between the particles and the matrix.

EHD Instabilities in Two Layers of Insulating and Conducting Immiscible Liquids Subjected to Unipolar Charge Injection

In this paper, the instability of two layers of insulating and conducting immiscible liquids separated by a deformable interface and subjected to unipolar injection is examined. Taking into account the slight deformation of the interface between the two liquids, a system of equations and boundary conditions is derived at marginal state. Non zero numerical solutions for both layers exist only for eigenvalues of the instability parameter T, which depends on the following parameters: injection level C, Bond number Bo, a new non-dimensional parameter P proportional to interfacial tension and the ratio of the layers’ thickness and of liquids viscosity. The variations in the instability criterion Tc, corresponding to the smallest eigenvalue, are examined in detail as a function of the main characteristic parameters C, P and the Bond number. We find that for some values of P, two instability mechanisms convective and interfacial ones can take place. When the strength of interfacial tension or the liquid thickness ratio is very low, the critical number tends to a value corresponding to interfacial instability. The influence of injection-induced convection in the insulating layer and the effect of interfacial deformation on interfacial instability are also discussed.

Experimental study on the shear characteristics of frozen soil‐concrete interface under the constant normal stiffness

AbstractThe interaction between the structure and soil is a crucial factor in infrastructure stabilization in cold region engineering, both transversely and vertically. During interface deformation, the transverse action is reflected in the change of constraints, including normal stiffness, normal stress, and normal volume, while the vertical action is reflected in the change of shear properties. However, the study of different transverse constraints is not systematic, especially considering the normal stiffness and shear properties at different hydrothermal states. This study investigated the shear behavior of the interface between concrete and frozen soil under different normal stiffness, temperature, and water content using the interface direct shear test under temperature‐controlled conditions. The results show that with the increase in temperature and water content, the initial shear stiffness of the interface shear stress‐shear displacement curve gradually increases, and the interface shear strength gradually increases. Different normal stiffnesses have a small effect on the morphology of the interfacial shear stress‐shear displacement curve but significantly affect the peak shear strength. The peak shear strength increases significantly with the increase of normal stiffness, and this trend is more obvious with the decrease in temperature. The corresponding interfacial cohesion and friction angle also increases with the increase in normal stiffness.