This article examines the comparative foreign policies of Iran and Turkey in Iraq between 2003 and 2019, focusing on their strategic objectives, instruments of influence, and implications for regional balance. Following the collapse of Saddam Hussein’s regime, Iraq emerged as a pivotal arena for geopolitical competition, where both Tehran and Ankara have sought to expand their spheres of influence. The study employs a theoretical framework combining offensive realism, balance of power theory, and regional security complex theory to explore the motivations and mechanisms underpinning each state's approach. Iran has pursued a strategy centered on constructing a Shia corridor, enhancing regional deterrence through proxy militias, and curbing U.S. influence. It has leveraged the Popular Mobilization Units, the Quds Force, religious diplomacy, and economic interdependence to assert dominance, particularly in Shia-majority areas. In contrast, Turkey has prioritized the Kurdish question, Turkmen advocacy, water security, and economic expansion. Its engagement with the Kurdistan Regional Government through trade and energy diplomacy, combined with a proactive military posture against the PKK, reflects a multidimensional approach to influence northern Iraq. The article also analyzes how both countries have employed soft power tools, such as religious networks and cultural outreach, and evaluates their impact on Iraq’s political elite and post-ISIS stabilization efforts. A comparative analysis reveals significant divergence in military and religious strategies, yet occasional convergence in opposing Kurdish separatism. The study concludes that the Iran–Turkey rivalry in Iraq is emblematic of a broader contest for regional leadership and that Iraq's internal fragmentation and institutional weakness have made it susceptible to external domination. This rivalry has shaped not only Iraq’s domestic order but also regional alignments involving the Gulf states, the United States, and Russia, making Iraq a microcosm of Middle Eastern geopolitical dynamics.

ABSTRACT This article examines how strategic communication served as a tool of wartime resistance for Ukraine during the early stages of the 2022 Russian invasion. Focusing on Volodymyr Zelenskyy’s public leadership, it analyses 42 speeches delivered to international audiences, showing how narrative framing helped reshape global perceptions. Drawing on strategic narrative theory and Smart State Theory, the study argues that small states can counterbalance military inferiority by constructing persuasive, value-driven messages. Zelenskyy’s appeals positioned Ukraine as a moral actor and mobilised diplomatic support, offering insight into how leadership and storytelling function as instruments of influence in asymmetric conflict.

The article examines the role of the Governor-General’s “dissenting opinion” as an instrument of influence on managerial decisions in the Russian Empire, in particular in the Far East in the second half of the 19th - early 20th century. The article examines the legal foundations and practical application of this institution, which made it possible to take into account regional specifics and promptly respond to challenges such as foreign expansion, demographic threats and economic problems. On the example of the activities of Governors-General N.N. Muravyov-Amursky and P.F. Unterberger is shown the way the “dissenting opinion” was used to lobby the interests of the region, limit migration from China and Korea, and strengthen defense capabilities and infrastructure. Special attention is paid to the confrontation between the central departments (the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Internal Affairs) and the regional administration, as well as the process of adopting legislative measures aimed at regu

The purpose of this work is to study the impact of restrictive measures of the European Union on the level of political support for the ruling and opposition forces in the Islamic Republic of Iran as sanctioned country, to analyze the dependence of this support, as well as the level of turnout in parliamentary and presidential elections, possible causes and features of the manifestation of this influence in this country. The methodological approach in conducting the study of the consequences of the described processes and their interrelations will be the process approach. The author chose factor analysis as the method, which makes it possible to identify hidden interrelations between the variables under consideration by comparing changes in the level of sanctions pressure with the results of all parliamentary and presidential elections from 2004 to 2024. After collecting the relevant data for the case country, a factor model is built and a regression analysis is performed. Based on the results of the study, the author concludes that sanctions can indeed have an impact on the political dynamics in the target country, but the nature of this relationship is ambiguous. Sanctions can lead to increased support for the ruling elites by consolidating around the leader and perceiving an external threat. The practical significance of the work lies in the possibility of applying its conclusions and results in the fields of political planning and strategic forecasting. The results of the study can be useful for government agencies and institutions, as well as non-state actors interested in analyzing the effectiveness of sanctions measures and their consequences. The theoretical significance of the work lies in the possibility of obtaining a deeper theoretical understanding of the mechanisms and relationships in the application of sanctions as an alternative method of coercion and an instrument of influence.

Narratives as tools of sociological imagination: a reply to ‘From discourse to legitimacy: narratives as instruments of influence in international relations’ by Armağan Gözkaman

This editorial article examines the centrality of narratives and values in shaping human understanding, social realities, and political life. Humans naturally think and communicate through stories, which structure events into coherent sequences, assign meaning, and influence collective memory, identity, and power relations. Narratives function as both cognitive and discursive tools, enabling shared understanding while redistributing interpretive authority between storytellers and audiences. They do more than represent reality: they actively shape opinions, social organization, and political dynamics. Values are inseparable from narratives, as stories translate abstract ideals into tangible political action. Both narratives and values are inherently unstable, socially constructed, and politically contested, with their meaning continually negotiated and mobilized by competing actors. By foregrounding the constitutive and transformative power of narratives and the contested nature of values, this article underscores their significance for interpreting political phenomena and analyzing the dynamics of international relations.

Hybrid threats have become a defining challenge for economic development, representing a complex combination of cyberattacks, disinformation, economic pressure, energy dependence, and political manipulation. Their strength lies in the synergy between instruments of influence, amplified by digital transformation, which increases exposure to manipulation, data breaches, and disruptions of critical infrastructure. The article aims to determine how hybrid threats shape economic development within a digital environment and to outline strategic responses that strengthen resilience and sustain growth. The study characterizes hybrid threats as multidimensional and cross-sectoral; analyzes mechanisms that link micro-level disruptions to macro-level outcomes (investment, markets, innovation, trust); identifies highly exposed sectors (finance, energy, telecommunications, critical infrastructure); and systematizes countermeasures by integrating technological safeguards, institutional arrangements, and policy instruments. It further contributes a framework mapping threat vectors to economic transmission channels and resilience levers, an operational indicator set combining digital signals with traditional statistics, and a sector-sensitive template for risk and resilience scoring with a forward research agenda. The analysis indicates diversified hybrid-campaign pressure across regions and a pronounced escalation in Ukraine, translating into measurable pressures on investment attractiveness, market stability, and digital-infrastructure reliability. The evidence supports integrated detection, attribution, and mitigation that spans technical, informational, and policy layers. The article underscores the need for whole-of-society responses that align international cooperation, governance mechanisms, and technological innovation. Strengthening cross-border resilience and hardening digital infrastructure operate as pro-growth measures, while the proposed framework and indicator set provide practical guidance for building resilient, adaptive, and secure economic systems in an interconnected world.

This article presents a comparative analysis of the contemporary foreign policy strategies of the United States, the People’s Republic of China, and the European Union amid growing geopolitical instability, economic transformations, and emerging global challenges. The purpose of the study is to identify the key priorities, instruments of influence, and implementation models adopted by major global actors competing for influence across various world regions, with a particular emphasis on Ukraine. The paper synthesizes academic literature and reveals the logic behind the formation of the three dominant strategic approaches: the U.S. strategy of deterrence, China’s model of peaceful rise, and the EU’s model of strategic autonomy. The United States seeks to maintain global leadership through military dominance, sanctions policy, and control over critical technologies. China promotes economic and infrastructure expansion, particularly via the Belt and Road Initiative and increased engagement with the Global South. The European Union pursues a strategy of balancing through the integration of soft power, regulatory leadership, financial instruments, and defense-diplomatic cooperation. A comparative table was developed to systematically present these approaches by detailing strategic objectives, key tools, regional focus, and forms of influence. This structure enabled the visualization of key differences among the actors and deepened the understanding of their geopolitical positioning. Furthermore, a SWOT analysis was conducted for each strategic model, highlighting strengths, weaknesses, opportunities for geopolitical maneuvering, and potential threats in a multipolar world order. Special attention is given to Ukraine as a space where strategic competition between the three actors is particularly visible. The study concludes that the global system of international relations is increasingly shaped by the interaction and rivalry of distinct strategic models, with direct implications for the evolving architecture of global governance.

This paper examines state-sponsored experiences through the case study of the Roman Colosseum, interrogating its dual role as both a political instrument and a site of civic engagement. Built to awe, to distract, and to reaffirm imperial control, it was a spectacle that kept the masses fed, thrilled, and, most importantly, obedient. But was it truly one-sided? This paper explores the paradox of state-sponsored experiences, questioning whether the Colosseum was merely a tool of control or if audiences, in their cheers and jeers, found subtle ways to assert agency. Drawing parallels with modern mega-experiences like the Olympics, Super Bowls, national celebrations, the study examines how governments continue to wield experiences as instruments of influence. Yet, no experience remains fully in the hands of its creators. Whether in ancient Rome or today, audiences reshape meaning, proving that even the most calculated performances of power can produce something far less predictable like citizen’s authentic engagement or social cohesion.

The article examines the features of risk classification as an important task for understanding the essence of this category, its depth, multifacetedness and the choice of appropriate instruments of influence. The study of theoretical issues related to risk management is a relevant scientific and practical task. At the same time, along with the study of the essence, main characteristics and functions of risks, the classification of risks and the analysis of the causes of their occurrence are of great importance. It is emphasized that it is the distribution of risks by types with different degrees of aggregation, importance, and characteristics that allows us to better determine the further methodology of analysis and assessment, to make decisions within the framework of the risk management policy style. The presence of a significant number of features of classification and division of risks, the dilatability of attributing certain risks to different subspecies once again emphasize the importance and necessity of in-depth research of this category. It has been established that the classification of risks can be carried out according to various criteria, such as the nature of the consequences, the scope of occurrence, the cause of occurrence, the degree of controllability, the level of occurrence, and others. Risks can be divided into pure (can cause only losses), speculative (can cause both losses and profits), financial, operational, strategic, and others. Risk classification is an important stage of risk management, which allows for more effective risk assessment and development of strategies for their minimization or prevention. It has been proven that despite active research, there is still no effective and universal risk classifier, which leads to independent categorization of risks in accordance with the main areas of activity for identifying, analyzing, and minimizing risks. It is also worth considering that in each specific case, the basis of risk classification contains a clearly defined applied purpose: to form transparent and analytically analyzed material for an effective description of risks with the subsequent construction of a risk management system.

The article presents a comprehensive analysis of Russia’s strategic goals and instruments of influence in foreign policy between 2014 and 2021 for implementing global ambitions. Using cluster and index analysis methods, the study identifies eleven regions of influence (ROIs) and four main clusters: Border Security (BS), Economic-Historical Ties (EHT), Eastern Markets (EM), and Dialogue with North America (DNA). The analysis showed that Russia’s activity in certain regions was differentiated and adapted to their strategic importance. The highest activity indicators were recorded in Central and Southern Africa, the Western Balkans, and the Baltic States, where Russia used various instruments of influence—from political to economic to informational. The study confirms that Russian foreign policy after 2014 was aimed at undermining Western dominance and building a multipolar world. The findings reveal Russia’s systematic and differentiated approach to achieving strategic goals in different regions of the world and contribute to a better understanding of its role in shaping the contemporary international order.

This article examines a new system of national values for sovereign Kazakhstan. The relevance of developing this system is due to the need to combat social vices that are destructive for Kazakhstan society, as well as the formation of a single nation based on the principle of citizenship. National construction in the Republic of Kazakhstan is accompanied by processes of transformation of public consciousness. In this context, the creation of a system of national values at the state level is intended not only to help form a common civil identity in the form of a nation, but also to become an instrument of influence on public consciousness. The transformation of the latter takes place in the context of socio-political reform of the country, in which the state initiative to approve the system of values is of particular importance. The values voiced by President Tokayev are not universal, but at the same time, these values are aimed at civil society and the formation of a single axiological field. Speaking at the National Kurultai, Tokayev outlined twelve national values, distributing them in pairs. First of all, these are the values of Independence and Patriotism, which are interconnected. Preservation of Independence, primarily political, depends on the level of patriotism. Education of patriotism is a primary task that should be implemented at all stages of socialization of a citizen. The values of Unity and Solidarity are called upon to become the basis for social consolidation, which is necessary not only to help victims of natural disasters, but also to achieve national goals and social reform. Justice and Responsibility occupy a special place in the system of national values. Justice, as President To-kayev has repeatedly emphasized, should be understood not in the simple redistribution of public goods, but in the equality of all before the law and strict responsibility for the fate of their country. Responsibility as a national value is actualized by the modern process of digitalization and virtualization of human life, giving the illusion of “false freedom”. The values of Law and Order, according to the head of state, should influence the public consciousness of Kazakhstan. Respect for the Law and the pursuit of Order are important elements of the stability of the social system and its evolutionary development. The events of January 2022 demonstrated how dangerous radical ideas are when implemented in conditions of lawlessness and violation of public order. That is why the Law and Order are separately designated by the President in the system of national values. Hard work and Professionalism as the values of the Kazakh nation are the key to the country’s economic development and achieving the status of a competitive state in the world arena. As part of the implementation of this system of values in the public consciousness, 2025 was declared the Year of Working Professions by President Tokayev. The values of Creation and Innovation are based on the cult of Knowledge being introduced in Kazakhstani society. The idea of lifelong learning and the immutable value of Knowledge is interconnected with the need to develop creativity and innovation in Kazakhstan society. According to Tokayev, the possession of such qualities by the Kazakh nation should ensure the country’s emergence as a leader in the world in the creation of popular innovative products. Digital technologies and their rapid development, the need to develop the sphere of artificial intelligence - these are the tasks, the achievement of which is a priority for the emerging Kazakh nation. In addition, the actualization of the values of Creation and Innovation is due to the need to develop the creative industry of Kazakhstani society. The latter is an important tool for influencing public consciousness, accumulating the creative potential of citizens and expressing itself in creativity, art, and media content. It is important that the national values we have already listed, for example, Unity and Solidarity, can be broadcast through the creative industry. The system of national values designated by Tokayev is not declarative. The introduction of these values in the education and upbringing system, as well as the ideological work of state bodies built on them, is designed to become a solid foundation for the formation of a nation based on the principle of citizenship.

In democratic states, free and independent journalism is a fundamental pillar of a free and civil society. The role of mass media in the process of building an independent state and civil society is undeniable. This article analyzes the cases where mass media historically the most powerful propaganda tool has been used as an instrument of influence. Even in the world’s most developed countries, the freedom of the press and democratic journalism are shown, through various examples, to be under threat, and the underlying causes of these threats are explored. Regardless of geographical location, freedom of speech is considered one of the most essential human rights, and press freedom is regarded as the foundation of human rights. Press freedom guarantees the protection of other freedoms. As Mammad Amin Rasulzade stated, “The enslavement of the press leads to moral decay, eliminates noble qualities, promotes lying, theft, dishonesty, and espionage, and results in literary and ideological corruption”. He viewed press freedom as a vital element for the existence of democracy in society. In a democratic system, just as the state protects the interests of the media, the media must also, when necessary, act in accordance with public, national, and state interests, striving toward the creation of an ideal society. Media institutions that are aware of their responsibilities understand that public interests cannot be safeguarded without protecting state interests. For the consolidation of state sovereignty, national interests must align with nationwide interests. Journalists must adhere to international principles and carry out their duties based solely on facts truthfully, impartially, and objectively without becoming tools in the hands of political groups.

This researchʼs relevance lies in the nationʼs continuous initiatives to reform Kazakhstanʼs criminal justice system, reduce recidivism rates, and coordinate its penal policies with international restorative justice standards, especially as it aims to reduce dependence on incarceration and improve the efficacy of probation and alternative sentencing strategies. The purpose of the study was to identify new forms of influence on criminals in the context of restorative justice. This study utilised comparative legal analysis, doctrinal legal research, and functional legal analysis to assess the efficacy of restorative justice and alternative sentencing in Kazakhstan, Germany, Spain, and the United States. The analysis of the fundamental international documents that regulate the legal status of persons convicted of a criminal offence using mitigating penalties and their impact on the formation of national criminal law is conducted. The study indicated that restorative justice procedures, including probation, suspended sentences, and mediation, result in reduced recidivism rates and enhanced rehabilitation efficacy relative to solely punitive methods in Kazakhstan. The comparative analysis indicated that Germany and Spain have systematically incorporated restorative justice into their legal frameworks, facilitating more effective offender reintegration, while Kazakhstan continues to emphasise incarceration, leading to elevated recidivism rates and financial burdens for the penal system. The results substantiated that alternative sentencing alleviates prison congestion and diminishes state costs, reinforcing the assertion that Kazakhstanʼs legislative system necessitates more modifications to conform to worldwide best practices. The practical importance of this study is to identify new instruments of influence on persons who are criminally responsible from the standpoint of restorative law, humanisation of criminal law, rehabilitation practice, and international experience in influencing offenders

Today, the mass media is a powerful tool for influencing public opinion. The article considers euphemisms as one of the most common ways of such influence. The ambivalent nature of euphemization is emphasized, which makes it the most important means of implementing various communication strategies both in the context of politically correct interaction and in the context of manipulation in the media. The article shows the specifics in the functioning of euphemisms as an instrument of influence in modern British and American media discourse, namely in the context of covering the negative political and social phenomena. The basic principles underlying the formation of euphemisms, as well as the specific mechanisms of their formation, are analyzed. The processes of semantic derivation, underlying conceptual derivation, conceptual integration, and the conceptual projection operation are fundamental in the creation of euphemistic vocabulary. The neutralization of negative characteristics at the level of specific models is carried out using the mechanisms of conceptual metaphor, conceptual metonymy and concretization. The formation of euphemisms is characterized by a stable correlation between the word-formation mechanisms and the cognitive processes underlying them.

The article analyses the processes of investment support for innovation in Ukraine during the fullscale invasion. The main tasks of Ukraine, together with international partners, are to improve the regulatory framework to promote entrepreneurship; financial support in the form of grants, subsidies, venture capital investments; non-financial assistance in providing access to international markets, mentoring, training programmes; and accumulation of capital from Western donors to support domestic innovation projects. The author systematises the main problems and challenges that affect the attraction of foreign investors, namely: war-related risks; corruption risks; economic instability; currency fluctuations; inflation; imperfect judicial system; complex and expensive logistics; specifics of the domestic market that distinguish it from European approaches; insufficient experience of Ukrainian start-ups in expanding foreign markets; lack of compliance of attractive defence startups with international standards and criteria. By studying the legal regime and instruments of influence on the intensification of investment in the development of innovation, the author analyses the government’s actions to reduce the negative factors affecting innovation development, namely: insurance of investment risks through the Export Credit Agency of Ukraine and cooperation with international institutions in this area; provision of loans, tax benefits and incentives to attract investment in priority sectors. The author outlines important areas of activity and tasks of the state to eliminate administrative barriers to starting a company; expanding various programmes, grants and tax benefits for entrepreneurs engaged in innovative developments; creating a special tax and economic space to attract investment in the technology industry; creating the most attractive conditions for foreign business; and improving the level of education in the fields of technology, engineering and mathematics, which can become the foundation for the development of innovations. The author emphasises the importance of formulating a state strategy aimed at rapid changes and effective reforms that would ensure innovative economic development.

The article considers the instruments of influence used by the leading states of the Mid-dle East against the changing system of regional and global international relations. In the emerging multipolar world, more and more regional states are seeking to consoli-date their influential positions. While some regional powers have enormous resources and influence, not all regional actors are ready to recognize their special role. The competition for leadership in the Arab world is intensifying against the background of active Saudi Arabia and the UAE’s foreign policies, promoting their own geopolitical initiatives. Turkey has significantly expanded its influence in the region. Iran, despite a number of setbacks, continues to play an important role. Israel is trying to maximize its security. There is a pronounced subregionalism in the Middle East. Inter-state rivalry both within and outside the subregions further complicates the emergence of a recog-nized authority. Different regional powers use different sets of tools to ensure their influence in the region or sub-region. In this study, the authors identify only some of the most effec-tive means practiced by individual Middle East actors for this purpose. Thus, many re-gional centers of power are increasingly focusing on normalizing relations with their opponents. In those conflicts, where they are not directly involved, they take on a medi-ating role. A number of leading states continue to focus on military force and/or proxy support. Sub-regional states are increasingly opting for a more pragmatic course in or-der to strengthen their positions and move beyond the borders of their geopolitical space.

This article examines the main aspects of the formation of political values in modern Russia. The purpose of the work is to analyze the place and role of political values of modern Russia in the context of new geopolitical challenges. The article uses a political-systemic approach, analysis of political documents, political analysis and other methods. It is emphasized that the uniqueness of Russian political values is determined both by its geographical location and the course of the evolution of Russian statehood. It is noted that the political values of Russian citizens are embodied in the program documents of political parties. Some instruments of influence are considered, with the help of which a purposeful destructive impact on society is carried out in order to impose false values. The value policy of Western countries is considered as neocolonial. Special attention is paid to social networks as a means of influencing citizens, including for destructive purposes. Some aspects of Russians' electoral behavior in the context of their shared values are considered using the example of the 2012 and 2018 presidential elections. The role of the political socialization of youth in the successful policy of protecting the values of the peoples of Russia is emphasized. It is noted that the preservation of traditional Russian values is one of the priorities of the state's policy at the present stage.

B a c k g r o u n d. The study examines the activities of Moshe Azman as Chief Rabbi of Ukraine in his role as a religious diplomat during the 2022–2025 Russian-Ukrainian war and his influence on shaping the Trump administration's position regarding support for Ukraine. The research analyzes the Chief Rabbi's transformation from a religious leader to an influential figure in international diplomacy, his strategies for influencing the American political elite, and his use of the international Chabad-Lubavitch network. The aim of the article is to investigate the effectiveness of religious diplomacy as an instrument of influence on foreign policy decisions of leading world powers, using Moshe Azman's activities as a case study. M e t h o d s. The article employs a complex of methods: historical analysis to study the evolution of the Chief Rabbi's activities (2022-2025), content analysis of his public speeches and statements, biographical method to research the formation of his worldview, systematic approach to examine his activities within the context of religious diplomacy theory, case study method for analyzing specific diplomatic episodes, and temporal correlation method to establish connections between Moshe Azman's activity and changes in American policy. This allowed for a comprehensive study of the mechanisms of religious-diplomatic influence on international relations. activities, media campaigns, and personal diplomacy through the international Chabad network. Key elements of his strategy included: organizing large-scale evacuation operations at the beginning of the war, creating compelling narratives about parallels between Nazi aggression and Russian invasion, targeted work with influential American religious leaders and conservative media. A significant correlation was identified between Moshe Azman's diplomatic activity and positive changes in the Trump administration's attitude toward Ukraine, particularly the transformation of the position of the president's spiritual advisor Mark Burns. C o n cl u si o n s. The Chief Rabbi's activities demonstrate the significant potential of religious diplomacy as an alternative channel of influence on international politics, especially in conditions of crisis of trust in traditional diplomatic institutions. His experience reveals possibilities for using religious identity and transnational religious networks to build international support during military conflict. However, structural risks of diplomacy personalization and dependence on personal connections of a specific leader were identified, creating vulnerability when political elites change.

The purpose of this article is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the development of military-strategic cooperation between the People’s Republic of China and the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) in the first quarter of the 21st century. The research methodology is based on the principles of historicism and comparative analysis, which made it possible to trace the stages of transformation in China’s foreign policy, identify its instruments of influence, and highlight the regional specificities of cooperation. The chronological method was applied to explore the evolution of China’s strategy, from economic partnership to a broader multidimensional approach that includes military engagement. Scientific novelty lies in the fact that the authors offer a systemic analysis of the transformation of China’s regional policy through the lens of security, as reflected in official strategies as well as practical initiatives, projects, and military-political ties with specific LAC states. The authors conclude that China’s military-strategic presence in the LAC region is a component of its global strategy aimed at forming a multi-channel network of influence and securing access to strategic infrastructure. Special attention is paid to the cases of cooperation with Cuba, Nicaragua and Venezuela. It is emphasized that this cooperation encompasses both traditional military formats (such as training, arms transfers, and defense forums) and innovative forms, including peacekeeping webinars, space programs, and investments in dual-use port and transport infrastructure. The article also explores the response of the United States and regional actors to the growing Chinese presence, including tensions and competition in telecommunications, logistics, and space. A key focus is placed on the interconnection between China’s economic and security policies, which are increasingly deployed in tandem, especially in regions adjacent to U.S. spheres of influence.