Paris Institute Research Articles

Rival Courts in Dynastic Europe: Vienna and Versailles 1550–1790 Variants of this text were presented as lectures in Oxford (Early Modern Europe Seminar, November 2001) and Paris (Institut Historique Allemand, November 2002). It reflects some of the ideas and conclusions of my forthcoming Vienna and Versailles: The Courts of Europe’s Dynastic Rivals 1550-1780, published by Cambridge University Press in August

Rival Courts in Dynastic Europe: Vienna and Versailles 1550–1790 Variants of this text were presented as lectures in Oxford (Early Modern Europe Seminar, November 2001) and Paris (Institut Historique Allemand, November 2002). It reflects some of the ideas and conclusions of my forthcoming Vienna and Versailles: The Courts of Europe’s Dynastic Rivals 1550-1780, published by Cambridge University Press in August

PaJaMas in Paris.

This is a personal reminiscence of what happened in one year, nearly 50 years ago, when I spent a sabbatical year at The Pasteur Institute in Paris. The year was fascinating, for I met and worked with Jacques Monod and Francois Jacob, a collaboration that culminated in the famous PaJaMa experiment.

Portier, Richet, and the discovery of anaphylaxis: A centennial

Portier, Richet, and the discovery of anaphylaxis: A centennial

In vitro susceptibility of 120 strains of Neisseria gonorrhoeae isolated in Kyrghyzstan.

The World Health Organization has established a worldwide program for gonococcal antimicrobial surveillance, but so far no data on gonococcal susceptibility in Central Asia are available. The need for biological data on the susceptibility of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in Kyrghyzstan, to enable adaptation of the national treatment protocol for gonococcal infections, led Médecins Sans Frontières and Epicentre to conduct a survey in collaboration with the Alfred Fournier Institute in Paris and the health authorities in Bishkek. In vitro susceptibility of N gonorrhoeae strains was determined with use of the reference agar-plate dilution technique. Results for 11 antibiotics tested on 120 strains of gonococci showed a low proportion (11.7%) of penicillinase-producing N gonorrhoeae and high proportions of intermediate or resistant strains to the majority of the antibiotics tested, including fluoroquinolones (>or=25% of strains resistant). All the strains were susceptible to spectinomycin, and only two strains had decreased susceptibility to cefixime. The therapeutic choices available in Kyrghyzstan appear to be limited to cephalosporins and spectinomycin.

Cities and energy: The sustainability (r)evolution

The author graduated as an engineer from the National Technical University of Athens, and completed her DEA at the National Geographical Institute in Paris. She continued with a DEA at the French Institute of City Planning where she also obtained her Ph.D. Her post-doctorate studies include research on Regional Policy at Oxford Brookes University and Environmental Economics at Harvard University. She started her career as Special Adviser to the Greek Ministry of Transport and Communications, and the European Union. She has been an official of the European Union and Research Manager at the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. She has co-written 25 EU publications, and has published nearly 100 articles on sustainable development, urban dynamics, regional capital, city and spatial policy and cultural value-added. She worked as a consultant on issues of sustainable development at the Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). She is now Scientific Officer at the Directorate General for Research, European Commission, Brussels, where her main duties are on energy research. The text that follows is a slightly edited and revised version of a paper presented at the World Society for Ekistics Symposion"Defining Success of the City in the 21st Century," Berlin, 24-28 October, 2001.

Cities and energy: The sustainability (r)evolution

The author graduated as an engineer from the National Technical University of Athens, and completed her DEA at the National Geographical Institute in Paris. She continued with a DEA at the French Institute of City Planning where she also obtained her Ph.D. Her post-doctorate studies include research on Regional Policy at Oxford Brookes University and Environmental Economics at Harvard University. She started her career as Special Adviser to the Greek Ministry of Transport and Communications, and the European Union. She has been an official of the European Union and Research Manager at the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. She has co-written 25 EU publications, and has published nearly 100 articles on sustainable development, urban dynamics, regional capital, city and spatial policy and cultural value-added. She worked as a consultant on issues of sustainable development at the Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). She is now Scientific Officer at the Directorate General for Research, European Commission, Brussels, where her main duties are on energy research. The text that follows is a slightly edited and revised version of a paper presented at the World Society for Ekistics SymposionDefining Success of the City in the 21st Century, Berlin, 24-28 October, 2001.

ESTRO Breur Gold Medal Award Lecture 2001: Irradiation accidents – lessons for oncology?

Considering the number of radioactive sources in use all over the world (both in industry and Medicine), irradiation accidents are exceedingly rare, as demonstrated by the main databases registering such cases: UNSCEAR, IAEA, REAC/TS (Oak Ridge, USA), the German group in Ulm and the Paris Institut Curie. The precise causes of most accidents have been openly analyzed, allowing to reduce the risk of subsequent identical accidental exposures. In addition, a rapid retrospective overview shows that positive lessons could be drawn from such accidents: 1. Lessons for patient management: one should keep in mind that the first ever allogeneic bone marrow transplantations were performed in 1958, on scientists from Yugoslavia who had been severely irradiated in a nuclear Research laboratory. Apart from what was learned from such accidents for the management of severe aplasia, the treatment of superficial accidental exposures has also benefited radiotherapy patients in certain specific situations. 2. Lessons for technology: the efforts to improve safety in nuclear plants are well known; the (successful) efforts to reduce the once-elevated risks when changing the therapeutic Cobalt 60 sources are less well known. Today, most irradiation accidents (by far) are related to misuse or loss of radioactive sources from industrial radiography sets. However, here again, various technological improvements significantly reduced the risks. 3. Lessons for radiobiology: the need for more and more sophisticated biological dosimetry has led to studies allowing better understanding of the short- and long-term effects of radiation on human cells. Analyses of samples taken in areas which were heavily accidentally irradiated also helped to identify, in particular, the cardinal role of TGF beta and TNF alpha in the development of fibrosis and necrosis after irradiation. 4. Lessons for prevention of accidents in radiotherapy: only three large-scale accidents involving external radiotherapy have been registered in the last decade, but deciphering the cause(s) of such problems clearly participated in the setting of demanding Quality Assurance programmes and strict national and international recommendations. Such open circulation of the information about these (fortunately rare) accidents appears to be one of the ways to improve Quality Assurance in Radiotherapy.

Se convertir à Paris au XIXe siècle

Resulting from a specific quest among the archives of the religious institutions in Paris, this article first figures out the correct numbers of Jews in Paris who, from 1807 to 1914, forswore their own faith and converted to Catholicism, as well as the number of Christians who converted to Judaïsm during the same period. From this research we can make out that while 1 000 Jews became Catholics, nearly 500 Catholics turned to the Jewish religion. Then Judaïsm did not such a dramatic drain because of conversion, which comes in fact as a minor reason in the losses of Judaïsm. The accurate analysis of the ebb and flow of conversions according to periodes, sex, age and social classes goes together with a study of the motives among which mariage comes widely ahead, especially when dealing with conversion to Judaïsm.

Scientific research at the Laboratoire Arago (Banyuls, France) in the twentieth century: Edouard Chatton, the "master", and André Lwoff, the "pupil".

Edouard Chatton (1883-1947) began his scientific career in the Pasteur Institute, where he made several important discoveries regarding pathogenic protists (trypanosomids, Plasmodium, toxoplasms, Leishmania). In 1908 he married a "Banyulencque", Marie Herre; from 1920, he focused his research on marine protists. He finished his career as Professor at the Sorbonne (Paris) and director of the Laboratoire Arago in Banyuls-sur-mer, where he died in 1947. André Lwoff (1902-1994) lived several scientific lives in addition to his artistic and family life. But it is the study of protists that filled his first life after he encountered the exceptional Master who was Chatton. Lwoff's father was a psychiatrist and his mother an artist sculptor. He became a Doctor of Medicine in 1927 and then a Doctor of Sciences in 1932, his thesis dealing with biochemical aspects of protozoa nutrition. He met Chatton in 1921 and until Chatton's death--their meetings, first in Roscoff and then in Banyuls-sur-mer, were numerous and their collaboration very close. Their monograph on apostome ciliates was one of the peaks of this collaboration. In 1938, Lwoff was made director of the Microbial Physiology Department at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, where he began a new life devoted to bacteria, and then to viruses, before pursuing his career as director of the Cancer Research Institute in Villejuif (France). Lwoff was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1965. He died in Banyuls in 1994. "Master" and "pupil" had in common perseverance in their scientific work, conception and observation, a critical sense and rigor but also a great artistic sensibility that painting and drawing in the exceptional surroundings of Banyuls-sur-mer had fulfilled.

Centenary of the death of the great hygienist and physician Max von Pettenkofer on February 9, 1901

Centenary of the death of the great hygienist and physician Max von Pettenkofer on February 9, 1901

Short communication: Lassa fever in Sierra Leone: UN peacekeepers are at risk.

Lassa fever is endemic in much of West Africa, particularly in Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia. The conflict and population migrations in this part of the world have led to the deployment of United Nations (UN) forces who are at risk of infection. We describe a Lassa case in this group. On July 12th 2000, a member of the Indian contingent of the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) peacekeeping forces stationed in Daru, Kailahun District, developed the clinical symptoms of Lassa fever ( McCormick et al. 1987 ). He presented with persistent fever (103–104 °F), myalgia, headache, abdominal pain, hypotension and facial flushing. On the eighth day he developed exudative tonsillar patches, subconjunctival haemorrhage, facial oedema and ecchymosis, then developed bilateral pleural effusions and started to bleed from venipuncture sites. He was treated for 10 days with intravenous ribavirin in the UNAMSIL referral hospital in Freetown, and survived. Presently no diagnostic facilities for Lassa fever are available in Sierra Leone, and the disease often does not present with specific symptoms allowing an early clinical diagnosis. The European Community supports a research project for the surveillance of Lassa fever, yellow fever and Ebola in Côte d’Ivoire and the Republic of Guinea. Coordinated by Epicentre, laboratory back up is provided by the University of Marburg, the Pasteur Institute in Paris and the Bernhard Nocht Institute, Hamburg. After a field investigation in Daru, UNAMSIL sent serum samples from the suspected Lassa case, possible contacts and from healthy villagers by helicopter to the project laboratory in Conakry. The samples were subjected to two different Reverse Transcription/PCR reactions (targeting the glycoprotein (GP) ( Demby et al. 1994), and nucleoprotein (NP) ( ter Meulen et al. 1998) genes) and indirect immunofluorescence for detection of anti-Lassa IgM and IgG antibodies. Lassa-IgM antibodies were detected in three consecutive serum samples of the Daru case and in pleural exudate, with IgM titres ranging from 1:40 to > 1:320. IgG antibody titres ranged from undetectable to > 1:640. Viral RNA was detected only in the first serum sample, taken on day three of ribavirin treatment, and Lassa virus was successfully isolated in Marburg (biosafety level 4). Sequencing of the PCR products revealed 93% homology for the GP gene with the prototypic Lassa virus strain Josiah from Sierra Leone, and 94% for the NP gene. On the aminoacid level, homologies were 97% for both GP and NP. Nine staff members of the Indian contingent who were considered contacts of the index case tested negative both in PCR and immunofluorescence. All four samples collected from male inhabitants of villages surrounding the UNAMSIL camp were PCR and IgM negative, but three samples tested positive for IgG (titres up to 1:160), consistent with the presence of Lassa transmission in that area. Lassa fever is endemic in many regions of Sierra Leone and can be transmitted to humans through food contaminated by rodent excreta or aerosolized rodent urine. UN peacekeepers are now protected by measures to reduce human-rodent contact (proper food storage, rodent control). Prompt ribavirin treatment of clinically suspected Lassa cases remains mandatory in endemic areas, since the drug is effective only if given early in the course of the disease. However, rapid laboratory confirmation of suspected cases is desirable for clinical and epidemiological purposes. Until diagnostic facilities can be re-established in Sierra Leone, the facility in Conakry can provide screening of suspected Lassa fever cases.

Overcoming all obstacles: the women of the Academie Julian

This work examines late 19th century Paris's most famous training ground for the leading women artists of the period. The Academie Julian was founded in Paris in 1868, initially to prepare students for entry to the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, the 19th century's preeminent art school. Because women could not study at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts until 1897, Julian itself became an international equivalent for many of the late 19th and early 20th century's most important women artists. This publication accompanies an exhibition organized by the Dahesh Museum in New York. The core of the book draws on the large collection of the Academie Julian Del Debbio, the Academie Julian's successor institution in Paris. Not only does this work introduce the reader to many works of art by women artists - both known and less known - but the essays offer a cultural and historical context in which to appreciate the artwork. Gabriel Weisberg's essay concentrates on the competitive training methods enforced by Rodolphe Julian and the teachers at the Academy. Jane Becker explores the competitive environment of the Academie Julian as it affected the Russian painter Marie Bashkirtseff and the Swiss painter Louise-Catherine Breslau. Essays by Catherine Fehrer, the leading scholar of the Academie Julian, and Tamar Garb, an art historian who focuses on the training of women artists, give us an increased understanding of the place of the Academie Julian in the sphere of art education in Paris in the second half of the 19th century.

Ladislav Tauc (1926–1999)

Ladislav Tauc was born in Pardubice, Czechoslovakia. He started his scientific career in 1945 at the Institute of Plant Physiology, Masaryk University, Brno with Vladimir Ulehla. In 1949 he obtained his (first) doctorate for his research work on bioelectric events in plants, whereupon he departed from Czechoslovakia for the ‘free world’. After obtaining a French scholarship, he continued to study at the École Normale Supérieure, a prestigious school in Paris. There, he joined the group of the great French neurophysiologist Alfred Fessard at the Marey Institute in Paris, where he met Albe Fessard, P. Buser and many leaders in physiology. In 1950, he defended his French thesis and, soon afterwards, under the influence of Alfred Fessard, he switched from plant physiology to the study of the nervous system in animals.

Ocular immunology and inflammation – Special Issue SOIE 2000, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France

SOIE 2000, the annual meeting of the Society for Ocular Immunoinfectiology in Europe (SOIE), was held for the first time at the Pasteur Institute in Paris from March 17 to 19, 2000, and was attended by more than 250 participants. Classical as well as new aspects of ocular inflammation were addressed in more than 40 presentations given by speakers from all over the world. This special issue contains a selection of the original contributions given during the conference, including new epidemiological data on uveitis in the USA, Japan, and Europe, data on controversial subjects such as vitrectomy as well as some new experimental and clinical aspects of ocular inflammation. Shen and colleagues report on the kinetics, susceptibility, and mechanisms of endotoxin-induced uveitis in four different murine strains and showed that the inflammatory response is biphasic in the most susceptible strain (C3H/HeN mouse). The expression of various cytokines seems to play a major role in the development of the disease. Read and Rao retrospectively evaluate the diagnostic yield of the American Uveitis Society criteria in a series of 71 consecutive patients who had been previously determined to have Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. They note that additional criteria, such as cerebrospinal fluid pleocytosis, fluorescein angiography, and ultrasonography abnormalities, could improve the diagnostic evaluation of the disease in individual patients. A long-term follow-up of patients with HTLV-1 uveitis has allowed Takahashi and coworkers to determine the clinical manifestations of the disease and its systemic complications. They report that visual prognosis may be poor due to anterior or posterior segment complications. Myelopathy can be observed even after the onset of uveitis, and, despite the association with Grave’s disease, methimazole does not seem to be a risk factor for uveitis. Intraocular lymphoma is a rare, but life-threatening etiology of ocular

The 1951-98 experience of the Paris Institut Curie Radiopathology Unit: a preliminary report

From 1 January 1951 to 30 June 1998, 696 patients presented spontaneously or were referred to the French Institut Curie Radiopathology Unit following a more or less severe accidental irradiation. Of these, 568 patients came from France, while 128 were sent by various foreign countries. The very great majority of irradiation accidents occurred in the workplace, particularly in industry. Interestingly, `non-nuclear' industry was responsible for three times more events than the nuclear industry. While incidental irradiation of the public by lost radioactive sources was exceedingly rare in France, it seemed to be more frequent in our cohort of foreign patients. Radiation phobia accounted for about 10% of cases in the French cohort, but the number of cases did not seem to increase with time. Overall, the accrual of patients over time appears to be stable, with 10 to 25 new cases consulting each year. Fortunately, a majority of cases corresponded to low-level irradiation (and even no irradiation at all). In the French cohort, only 21.6% of patients, showing deterministic effects, required some form of treatment, with 4.9% considered as `severe' cases. Not unexpectedly, more patients required treatment in the foreign cohort (35.2%), with 24.2% of severe cases, including four deaths. The main features of this database are consistent with the data previously reported by the IAEA, UNSCEAR and REAC/TS. Although the number of severe cases is small, it should still be considered to be too high, especially as most of these accidents could have been easily avoided if a few basic radioprotection rules had been fully respected.

Felix Milgrom, immunologist and microbiologist par excellence

THE Basic Sciences Symposium of The Transplantation Society has become a biennial institution, designed to bring together in a common forum the various basic science disciplines involved in transplantation and related fields. These gatherings have been uniquely successful, but this meeting will, in all likelihood, be the largest and most comprehensive to date. To no small extent, this is due to the special historic role of Buffalo immunology, and of the Ernest Witebsky Center, in shepherding the orderly development of immunology as a major modern discipline. Felix Milgrom is the direct heir to this tradition, which began with Paul Ehrlich and Ludwik Hirszfeld in Europe, and then progressed to Ernest Witebsky in Buffalo. This meeting has been dedicated to Felix Milgrom, and I have been assigned the pleasant task of presenting him to you. Felix Milgrom was born in Poland in 1919, and was educated at the Polish universities of Lwow, Lublin, and Wroclaw (previously Breslau), where he earned the degree of Dozent and his doctorate in Medicine. A period of his medical training took place under Nazi occupation, while he and his family were in hiding, risking their lives daily, because they were Jewish. Felix Milgrom remained at the University of Wroclaw after the war (1946–1954), rising to Professor and Acting Chairman of Microbiology, and Director of the Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy of the Polish Academy of Sciences. From 1954 to 1957, he was Professor and Chairman of Microbiology at the Silesian University of Medicine. By now, however, Felix Milgrom had served under Soviet rule for eleven years, living through the Lysenko days, and becoming increasingly desperate because of the absolute lack of intellectual or scientific freedom. In 1957, he was permitted to leave Poland and sought employment in Paris. For several months, he worked at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, in the laboratory of the late Pierre Grabar. This was followed by a brief stint in a Venezuelan blood bank. Milgrom then joined Ernest Witebsky in Buffalo in 1958, and the rest is history. By 1967, he was again a full Professor, and, upon Dr Witebsky’s retirement, Chairman of the Department. Felix Milgrom is a Founder and former Director of the Center for Immunology, and received the highest accolade of the State University of New York in 1981, when he was elevated to the rank of Distinguished Professor. Felix Milgrom has been a leading light in microbiology, immunology and transplantation for a half a century. He has served on all important Federal and State Advisory Committees, and has been the editor or associate editor of numerous major journals. Notably, he served for 26 years as Editor-in-Chief of the International Archives of Allergy and Applied Immunology, and devoted nine years to the Expert Advisory Panel for Immunology of the WHO. He was also a star of the now-legendary NIH Committee for Collaborative Research in Transplantation and Immunology, which provided in 1964 the first major funding to stimulate collaborative HLA studies worldwide. He has been a Councilor and Vice President of The Transplantation Society, and President of the Collegium Internationale Allergologicum. Felix Milgrom has published over 400 major papers in Autoimmunity, Immunopathology, Tumor Immunology, and Transplantation. He has had approximately 80 post-doctoral alumni, representing many nations around the world, and Japan in particular. It is difficult to do justice to Felix Milgrom’s enormous scientific contributions in this short presentation. Suffice it to say that his research has deep roots in the Paul Ehrlich classical School of Immunology (Heidelberg). This began in Poland with his association with the great Ludwik Hirszfeld, a student of Emil von Dungern, in Paul Ehrlich’s laboratory. Witebsky, in turn, had been a laboratory assistant of yet another Ehrlich student, Hans Sachs. These roots received formal acknowledgment by the University of Heidelberg, when they conferred upon Felix Milgrom the Honorary Degree of Doctor of Medicine, with this telling citation: “Following his teachers, Hirszfeld and Witebsky in pursuing the study of immunology, he has contributed to the honor and glory of The Heidelberg School.” Felix Milgrom’s enormous contributions to immunology include a number of important landmarks. He was first to demonstrate that antibodies may have more than two valences, and he introduced the concept of multispecificity, showing that one antibody molecule can have combining sites for various different antigens. In his studies of antibody

Celebrated virus hunters set up shop in France.

PARIS AND LYONS-- The Pasteur Institute in Paris has lured Joseph McCormick, a virus hunter made famous by several recent books and TV documentaries, to head its recently created epidemiology and biostatistics unit. The new unit is part of a drive to focus Pasteur's basic research talents more directly on public health problems, particularly infectious diseases. McCormick hopes to use the worldwide Pasteur network of labs to create vaccine testing centers in the developing world, focusing especially on exotic diseases that receive little attention from the pharmaceutical industry.

The twin icons of French AIDS research.

PARIS-- Ask the average French person to identify France's leading AIDS researcher, and one name is likely to come up immediately: virologist Luc Montagnier of the Pasteur Institute in Paris, spokesperson for the group of physicians and scientists that first isolated HIV. But ask a French AIDS researcher to name the most important figure in HIV research, and you are likely to hear a different name: virologist Jean-Paul LA©vy, director of the government's primary AIDS funding agency. Yet, ironically, members of the original AIDS research team say it was LA©vy's unwillingness to take the helm of AIDS research during the early days of the epidemic that paved the way for Montagnier's rise to fame.

Representing Mechanical Arts in Diderot’s Encyclopédie

Representing Mechanical Arts in Diderot’s Encyclopédie JOHN R. PANNABECKER A single art about which one would want to repre­ sent everything and say everything would furnish vol­ umes ofdiscourse [written texts] & plates. One would never finish if one proposed to render in figures all the states through which a piece ofiron passes before being transformed into a needle. That the discourse follow the process of the artist to the last detail, fine. As for the figures, we have restricted them to the im­ portantmovementsoftheworker& onlythe moments of the operation that are very easy to depict and very difficult to explain. We have limited ourselves to the essential circumstances, to those ofwhich the repre­ sentation,when itiswell done, leads necessarily to the knowledge ofthose that one does not see.1 Thus did Denis Diderot (1713-84), editor of the famous Encyclo­ pédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, acknowl­ edge at the outset some of the difficulties in representing the meDr . Pannabecker is professor of technology at McPherson College, where he has taught since 1982. He headed the department of technology there from 1982 to 1990, during which time he managed the McPherson College automobile restora­ tion technology program. He gratefully acknowledges the assistance ofJoan Rich­ ards, Rachel Pannabecker, Ken Alder, Ray Santee of McPherson College Interlibrary Loan, and the librarians and staffofresearch institutions in Paris: Bibliothèque Nati­ onale, Archives Nationales, Archives de l’Académie des Sciences, Bibliothèque de l’Institut, Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers, and Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal. Earlier drafts of this article were prepared during a summer seminar funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities. Archival and library research in France was facilitated by a sabbatical leave from McPherson College. 'Denis Diderot, “Prospectus,” in Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, ed. Denis Diderot and Jean d’Alembert, vol. 1 (Paris, 1751; reprint, New York, 1969), p. xl. Diderot’s “Prospectus” was first published in 1750 and republished as part of the “Discours préliminaire” (by Jean le Rond d’Alem­ bert) introducing the Encyclopédie, vol. 1, pp. xxxiv-xlv. When I cite the “Prospectus” in this article the reference is to this republished version. Because all other articles in the Encyclopédie can be found in alphabetical order, volume and page numbers are omitted here.© 1998 by the Society for the History of Technolog)'. All rights reserved. 0040-165X/98/3901-0002S02.00 33 34 John R. Pannabecker chanical arts in words and pictures. Nor did the difficulties diminish as the project progressed. Yet the diverse implications of technical representation have been overshadowed by a historiography that fo­ cuses on liberal philosophy and politics. This article is an attempt to redress this imbalance, at least in part, by uncovering the multiple meanings in the Encyclopédie s three forms of portraying the arts: namely, in articles organized alphabetically in the seventeen vol­ umes of text; in eleven volumes of pictures (engraved or etched plates); and in the “explanations” accompanying the plates. Diderot regarded the representations of the arts as a social respon­ sibility. As the Encyclopédie spread across Europe and to the New World, it served as a vehicle for transmitting technological ideas.2 Thomas Jefferson bought a Lucca edition for the United States in Paris in 1781, and a generation later Thomas Blanchard, inventor of automatic machines for making gunstocks, referred to the cams illustrated in the Encyclopédie in one of his patents.3 The 1951 bicentennial of the Encyclopédie s publication stimulated new interest in the work.4 There were detractors; some historians The Encyclopédiewas published in twenty-eightvolumes from 1751 to 1772, in Paris and Neufchâtel. References here are to the reprint edition published by Readex Microprint in 1969. (Readex published the original seventeen folio volumes of text in three folio volumes and the eleven volumes of plates in one folio volume.) Trans­ lations are mine unless otherwise noted. Quotations from individual articles and references to plates and their explanations are cited in the text; page references are to the first edition. The article “Encyclopédie” in...

5670345 Biological production of humic acid and clean fuels from coal: Srivastava Kailash Chandra; Walia Daman S Centreville, VA, United States assigned to Arctech Inc

5670345 Biological production of humic acid and clean fuels from coal: Srivastava Kailash Chandra; Walia Daman S Centreville, VA, United States assigned to Arctech Inc