Insect-derived Protein Research Articles

Insect-derived proteins constitute an underutilized biological resource requiring urgent exploration to address global food protein shortages. However, their widespread application is hindered by the allergenic potential, particularly phospholipase A2 (PLA2), a highly immunoreactive allergen prevalent in edible insects such as ants and honeybees. This study systematically investigated the molecular mechanism underlying quercetin-mediated reduction in PLA2 allergenicity, aiming to establish a novel strategy for developing hypoallergenic insect protein resources. Through integrated computational and experimental approaches, we identified quercetin's dual non-covalent and covalent binding capabilities with PLA2. Molecular docking revealed robust interactions (the binding energy of -6.49 kcal/mol) within the catalytic pocket. Meanwhile, mass spectrometry specifically identified Cys37 as the covalent modification site, which can bind to quercetin and increase the gyration radius (Rg) of PLA2 within 75-125 ns. Molecular dynamics simulations illustrated quercetin-induced conformational changes affecting critical antigenic epitopes. Murine experiments further confirmed that quercetin-modified PLA2 exhibited significantly reduced IgE reactivity and allergic responses compared to native PLA2, as demonstrated by assessments of anaphylactic behavior, histopathological changes, and measurements of serum IgE antibody and biogenic amine levels. Collectively, these findings provide a transformative approach to safely utilize insect-derived proteins for sustainable nutrition solutions.

ABSTRACTBackground and Aim:Insect-derived proteins are gaining attention as sustainable pet food ingredients, but the use of cricket protein hydrolysate (CPH) in canine diets remains underexplored. This study evaluated the effects of CPH on diet palatability, physiological responses, and antioxidant potential for shelf-life extension in commercial dog food.Materials and Methods:Thirty-two healthy adult dogs were assigned to four diets containing 0%, 2%, 4%, or 6% CPH for a 30-day feeding trial. Palatability was assessed through a two-bowl preference test, while biochemical, hematological, and fecal parameters were measured pre- and post-trial. Antioxidant efficacy was evaluated by monitoring acid value (AV) and peroxide value (PV) during accelerated storage (55°C for 46 days, simulating 12 months). Nutritional adequacy was confirmed through proximate and amino acid analysis.Results:The 2% CPH diet significantly improved palatability, with a 57% increase in intake compared to control (p < 0.05), whereas higher inclusions (4% and 6%) reduced acceptance due to bitterness from hydrophobic peptides. All health parameters remained within reference ranges, though the 6% CPH diet lowered serum glucose (87.0 vs. 112.0 mg/dL; p < 0.001) and increased blood urea nitrogen (11.0 mg/dL; p = 0.0023). Antioxidant activity increased with CPH level, with 6% CPH reducing PV by 33% after 46 days (p < 0.05). CPH lacked certain essential amino acids, notably tryptophan, requiring complementary protein supplementation.Conclusion:CPH is a multifunctional ingredient that can enhance palatability and oxidative stability in dog diets at moderate inclusion (2%). High inclusion levels improve antioxidant capacity but may impair sensory acceptance and alter metabolic markers. Long-term safety, allergenicity, and flavor-masking strategies warrant further study.

The European Commission approval of some insect species for human consumption, starting with Tenebrio molitor (TM) in 2021, has drawn attention to the production of insect-derived protein flours and the sustainability of insect-rearing systems, particularly on a large scale. This has also highlighted the importance of utilizing byproducts, such as frass, and obtaining high-value-added products, such as biofertilizers. This study explored the potential for TM frass (TMF) to serve as a natural fertilizer for the cultivation of Canasta lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. capitata). Specifically, a series of tests was carried out to assess the efficacy of thermal treatment and to verify the trend of certain chemical and growth parameters as a function of the TMF percentage to be added to the potting soil. For this purpose, different percentages of both thermal-treated and untreated TMF and their effects on various growth parameters of Canasta lettuce were evaluated through pot trials. Furthermore, TMF was characterized by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to gain insights into its structural features and potential influence on soil–plant interactions. Our results show that heat treatment of TMF is essential to ensure plant survival, and at least in pots, TMF percentages above 5% of soil dry weight are not recommended. In our tests, the most suitable percentage was 4%.

The food system of the whole world is under more and more pressure to find solutions to satisfy the nutritional demands of an increasing population, and at the same time, limit the impact of the food system on the environment. The increasing global demand for sustainable and nutritionally rich protein sources has brought attention to insect-derived proteins, with Bombyx mori pupae emerging as a promising candidate. Traditionally considered a sericultural by-product, these pupae are abundant in high-quality proteins, essential amino acids, bioactive compounds, and beneficial lipids. This review comprehensively explores the nutritional potential, innovative protein extraction methods, functional and bioactive properties, and diverse applications of B. mori pupae in food, nutraceutical, feed, and biomedical sectors. Emphasis is placed on advanced green technologies such as enzymatic hydrolysis, membrane filtration, and deep eutectic solvents that enhance protein yield and maintain bioactivity. Regulatory frameworks, safety assessments, and consumer acceptance are discussed in relation to global commercialisation. Furthermore, the environmental and economic benefits, including waste valorisation and contributions to circular bioeconomy models, are examined. Addressing key challenges such as standardisation, allergenicity, and policy alignment is crucial to unlocking the full potential of silkworm pupae protein as a sustainable and functional alternative in the global protein landscape. To conclude, silkworm pupae protein powder has a transformative potential to shape the sustainable development and food security, as well as a healthy nation, through its contribution as a potential source of a superior protein of the future, not only as an alternative, but as a better protein source.

Abstract This study investigated the impact of lipid removal and particle size classification on the physical structure, chemical composition, and powder handling characteristics of an insect-derived protein source. Samples were prepared by ethanol-based defatting and sieving into coarse, medium, and fine fractions. Comprehensive analyses included proximate composition, CHNS elemental profiling, water activity measurements, laser diffraction for size distribution, microscopy, colorimetry, and flowability evaluation using bulk densities, Carr’s Index, Hausner Ratio, and angle of repose. Defatting reduced lipid content by 16–18%, increasing protein concentration and sulphur content, while decreasing carbon and hydrogen levels. Water activity was significantly lower in defatted samples. Size distribution analyses revealed higher specific surface area and narrower span values in defatted powders, with fine fractions exhibiting the highest surface area. Microscopy confirmed a fragmented and porous morphology in defatted powders, in contrast to the smoother, agglomerated structure of non-defatted samples. Colour analysis indicated that defatting and particle size reduction increased lightness and decreased redness, with fine powders displaying the lightest colour profile. Bulk and tapped densities were generally higher in finer fractions. However, reduced flow performance was observed with decreasing particle size. Flowability was improved by lipid removal, particularly through a reduction in angle of repose. These results provide valuable insights into the interplay between composition, structure, and powder functionality, with implications for optimization in food processing applications.

Protein is a crucial macronutrient for muscle growth, repair, and optimal performance. Conventional sources such as whey and casein dominate the nutrition industry; however, concerns about their environmental impact, resource-intensive production, and digestibility necessitate the exploration of alternative protein sources. Edible insects are a highly sustainable and nutrient-dense option, delivering complete proteins with all essential amino acids, a high bioavailability of micronutrients, and favorable digestion kinetics. Comparative studies suggest that insect-derived proteins exhibit protein efficiency ratios and digestibility scores comparable to those of traditional proteins, making them viable for muscle synthesis and post-exercise recovery. However, several challenges hinder the widespread adoption of insect proteins as supplements. The bioactive peptides and specific metabolic pathways governing insect protein absorption remain underexplored compared to extensively studied whey proteins. Additionally, allergenicity profiles and potential immunogenic responses require rigorous evaluation to ensure product safety. Consumer reluctance, shaped by cultural biases and limited exposure, further impedes market integration in the region. Moreover, regulatory inconsistencies across global food safety frameworks complicate the commercialization process. Additionally, evaluating their role in muscle protein synthesis, endurance enhancement, and post-exercise recovery will determine their efficacy as sustainable alternatives in strength- and muscle-building regimens. This review explores the nutritional composition of edible insects, their environmental benefits, and their potential health risks. It also compares insect proteins with traditional sources, examines their role in muscle growth, highlights innovative insect-based products, and discusses consumer acceptance and market perspectives. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

Abstract This study investigates the effectiveness of Clanis bilineata (Soybean hawkmoth) larvae (CBL) as a novel alternative for soybean meal in mature laying ducks (64 weeks old). In a randomized controlled trial, 120 ducks were allocated to control (soybean-based diet) and CBL groups (15.79% CBL replacing soybean meal), each comprising six replicates of 10 birds. Over 63 days, CBL supplementation significantly enhanced serum antioxidant defences, with superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities increasing by 15.7% () and 44.0% (), respectively, compared to the control. Daily egg production rose by 12.1% (), egg mass by 21.7% (), and yolk colour intensity by 21.9% (). CBL also elevated immunoglobulins (IgG: +48.3%, ; IgA: +27.8%, ; IgM: +43.5%, ) and high-density lipoprotein levels (+23.7%, ), while reducing serum triglycerides (−25.0%, ) and total cholesterol (−11.4%, ). Feed efficiency improved by 11.8% () without compromising feed intake, eggshell integrity, or albumen quality. Notably, CBL supplementation caused no adverse effects on feed consumption, eggshell integrity, or albumen quality. Simultaneously, feed efficiency increased by 11.8% (). These findings demonstrate that CBL decreases oxidative stress and age-related metabolic dysregulation, making it a promising dietary intervention for increasing aging ducks production. The findings show that insect-derived proteins have the potential to alleviate global feed supply challenges while also increasing the ecological and economical sustainability of animal husbandry.

Factors influencing the acceptance of alternative protein sources.

Adipocytes secrete adipokines, bioactive molecules crucial for various physiological processes, such as enhancing insulin sensitivity, promoting wound healing, supporting hair growth, and exhibiting anti-aging effects on the skin. With the growing global demand for sustainable and alternative protein sources, insect-derived proteins, particularly from Tenebrio molitor (mealworms), have gained attention due to their high nutritional value and functional bioactivities. This study aims to explore the potential of mealworm-derived protein hydrolysates as novel bioactive materials for promoting adipogenesis and improving adipokine expression, with applications in metabolic health and skin regeneration. Protein hydrolysates (<1 kDa) were prepared using enzymatic hydrolysis with three proteases (alcalase, flavourzyme, and neutrase) and evaluated for their adipogenic activity in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. Among them, the flavourzyme-derived hydrolysate (Fh-T) exhibited the most significant effects, enhancing adipogenic differentiation and lipid accumulation. Fh-T facilitated adipogenesis by promoting mitotic clonal expansion (MCE) during the early stage of differentiation, which was associated with the upregulation of C/EBPδ and the downregulation of p27. These findings underscore the potential of mealworm-derived protein hydrolysates, particularly Fh-T, as sustainable and functional ingredients for use in glycemic control, skin health, and tissue regeneration. This study provides valuable insights into the innovative use of alternative protein sources in functional foods and cosmeceuticals.

Potential of edible insects as alternative protein source for the older adults.

Biophysical methods such as circular dichroism (CD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) have been minimally used to characterize insect-derived proteins. This study examines the insect Alphitobius diaperinus as a potential protein source. Techniques such as alkaline solubilization coupled to isoelectric precipitation and Osborne fractionation were used to obtain protein concentrates and fractions (albumins, globulins, prolamins, glutelins). SDS-PAGE results showed dominant protein bands at 78.3, 73.3, 49.3, 34.5, 32.0, and 10.3 kDa. All fractions had over 60 % α-helix and β-sheet structures, indicating stable conformations. Prolamins showed high surface hydrophobicity and thermal stability. Nutritionally, glutelins exhibited the highest concentration of essential amino acids (68.75 g/100 g protein), and demonstrated superior In vitro protein-digestibility (84.04 %) as well as the highest In vitro protein-digestibility corrected amino acid score (73.11 %). Therefore, this study characterized the structural-function relationship of A. diaperinus proteins and collectively assessed their suitability and safety for human consumption.

The current global trend in the nutrition, epidemiologic and demographic transitions collectively alarms the need to pursue a sustainable protein diet that respects ecosystem and biodiversity from alternative sources, such as algae, fungi and edible insects. Then, changing the nutrition reality is extremely important to impede the global syndemic of obesity, undernutrition and climate change. This review aims to synthesize the published literature on the potential roles of alternative proteins and their derived bioactive peptides in preventive and clinical nutrition, identify research gaps and inform future research areas. Google Scholar and PubMed databases from their inception up to 30 June 2024 were searched using keywords to access pertinent articles published in English language for the review. Overall, proteins derived from algae, fungi, and edible insects are high-quality proteins as animal sources and demonstrate significant potential as a sustainable source of bioactive peptides, which are metabolically potent and have negligible adverse effects. They show promise to prevent and treat diseases associated with oxidative stress, obesity, diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease (especially hypertension), and neurodegenerative diseases. Given the abundance of algae, fungi and insect peptides performed in vitro or in vivo animals, further clinical studies are needed to fully establish their safety, efficacy and practical application in preventive and clinical nutrition. Additionally, social and behavioral change communication strategies would be important to increase health awareness of nutritional benefits and promote consumer acceptance of alternative protein sources.

The marketing of insect-derived protein has led to the development of respective legal regulations on such insects-based foods in the European Union. Despite the interest in the area of insect-based food, European researchers have paid relatively little attention to consumer attitudes and behaviors towards such products or the factors that may affect them. Attempts undertaken so far in this respect are insufficient; therefore, there is a need to continue and expand research in this field. The present study attempts to verify the following research hypotheses: H1. Attitudes towards food containing insects are related to the attributes/characteristics of these products, care for health and the natural environment, and attitudes towards novelty (neophilic/neophobic); H2. Intentions to purchase food containing insects can be predicted based on attitudes towards food from insects, product attributes, and attitudes towards environmental health and novelties. An empirical study was conducted among university students (N = 1063) by an indirect interview method using a specially designed questionnaire, via an online platform (Computer-Assisted Web Interview, CAWI) in November 2023. The questionnaire was validated by assessing the construction validity and estimating the reliability of the scales used. The study results demonstrated that the attributes of insect-based food products can influence the positive attitudes towards them and behavioral intentions to consume them, and that the strength of the impact of health quality traits is far greater than that of the organoleptic or functional traits. A negative, statistically significant value of the correlation coefficient between neophobic attitude and intention to purchase this type of food was observed. Thus, respondents without food neophobia were characterized by a positive attitude towards the purchase of foods containing edible insects in their composition.

Novel foods, including edible insects, are emerging because of their nutritional characteristics and low environmental impacts and could represent a valid alternative source of food in a more sustainable way. Edible insects have been shown to have beneficial effects on human health. Insect-derived bioactive peptides exert antihypertensive, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties and have protective effects against common metabolic conditions. In this review, the roles of edible insects in human health are reported, and the possible applications of these peptides in clinical practice are discussed. A special mention is given to the role of antimicrobial peptides and their potential applications in controlling infections in orthodontic procedures. In this context, insects' antimicrobial peptides might represent a potential tool to face the onset of infective endocarditis, with a low chance to develop resistances, and could be manipulated and optimized to replace common antibiotics used in clinical practice so far. Although some safety concerns must be taken into consideration, and the isolation and production of insect-derived proteins are far from easy, edible insects represent an interesting source of peptides, with beneficial effects that may be, in the future, integrated into clinical and orthodontic practice.

Effect of ethanol treatment on the structural, techno-functional, and antioxidant properties of edible insect protein obtained from Tenebrio molitor larvae

The potential of edible insects as a novel ingredient in high value-added products has been investigated to find alternatives to conventional protein sources. Low acceptability of entomophagy is the main challenge, but the development of insect protein-based food products could improve consumer perception. Nevertheless, while insect rearing has a low environmental impact, there are no studies on environmental performance related to the production of insect protein extracts. In this work, Tenebrio molitor (TM) protein extracts were produced by protein alkaline solubilization (one or two steps) with or without isoelectric precipitation, and the global warming potential (GWP) related to the different protein extracts was calculated. The optimal lipid extraction rate was 86.9% using a hexane: ethanol ratio of 1:2. Protein extraction and purification rates ranged from 54.7 to 94.4% and 80.0 to 49.4%, respectively. Depending on the protein purification and allocation method applied, the GWP of a TM protein extract was 3,050 to 10,871 kg CO2 eq. per ton of the extract produced. Eco-efficiency scores associated to TM proteins extracts were between those published with plant-based and animal-based protein sources, confirming the interesting environmental performance of insect-derived protein ingredients.

Insect-derived proteins are a promising, valuable and permitted ingredient for poultry feed. However, more emphasis should be given to their effects on avian species different from chicken, such as quail (Coturnix coturnix), whose rearing represents an important activity. The present paper provides novel information about the impact of graded dietary levels of Tenebrio molitor (TM) larvae meal on quail growth and meat quality. Four diets were formulated with graded inclusion levels of TM, namely 1.65, 3.3 and 6.6 g on 100 g feed (T1.65, T3.3, T6.6, respectively) to partially replace the conventional proteins of a control diet (C). A total of 192 birds were allotted to one of the groups and fed for 35 days. The inclusion of TM meal linearly increased feed conversion ratio, and decreased carcass and breast weight. Texture and water holding capacity of meat were linearly reduced with increasing TM in diet, while fatty acid composition was not affected. However, the meat from quails fed diets including TM was subject to greater thermal damage than the C group; hence further studies are encouraged. TM meal inclusion at higher levels than 1.65% slightly impaired the growth performance of Japanese quails. Negligible effects on physical properties such as colour, texture, cooking loss and also on the fatty acid profile of the raw and cooked meat was found after including TM in quails' diet up to 3.3%. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

During the last decade the potential of insects for human nutritional protein is increasingly recognised. Direct consumption of insects contributes to a reduction of the ecological footprint of human food production and is claimed to have health benefits. An alternative is feeding poultry (broilers and layers) with insect-derived protein. This offers several additional advantages, e.g. a more extensive use of (new sources) of organic by-products of food industry for insect production. Implementation of a People-Planet-Profit (PPP) sustainable way of utilising these opportunities requires the development of sustainable business models. Such business models need to be based on the opportunities of insect-derived protein in feeding poultry but should also include the risks associated with insect-derived protein for feeding poultry. This article explores the insect-fed poultry production value chain through an interdisciplinary approach. First, the essential features of this value chain are described. Then, an inventory and classification is made of the main opportunities and risks of this value chain. Finally, the opportunity-risk trade-offs are discussed, as well as their implications for developing sustainable business models. We conclude that for PPP-sustainable business models, management of the asymmetric trade-offs between opportunities and risks related to possible contamination of organic by-products used as substrate for insect production should receive prime attention. Implications for organising the value chain are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the acute effects of ingesting beef- and insect-derived protein on postprandial plasma amino acid and appetite hormone concentrations, appetite sensations, and ad libitum energy intake. In a randomized, double-blind, crossover study, 20 young men (23 (SD: 4) y) completed two trials during which arterialized blood samples and VAS questionnaires were collected at baseline, and over 300-min after ingestion of beverages with similar energy and macronutrient content containing 25 g beef- or insect-derived (cricket) protein. Blood samples were analyzed for plasma amino acid and appetite hormone concentrations, while VAS questionnaires were applied to assess appetite sensations. After each trial, an ad libitum meal was immediately provided to assess energy intake. Adjusted mean postprandial incremental area under the curve (iAUC) was greater for cricket vs. beef-derived protein for plasma leucine, branched-chain amino acid, and essential amino acid concentrations (all P &lt; 0.0001). Adjusted mean postprandial iAUC for hunger was lower following beef (-3030 (SE: 860)) vs. cricket-derived (-1197 (SE: 525)) protein (Difference: -1833 (95% CI: -3358, -308); P = 0.02), but was not different for other appetite sensations or appetite hormones (all P &gt; 0.05). Adjusted mean ad libitum energy intake was 4072 (SE: 292) and 4408 (SE: 316) kJ following beef- and cricket-derived protein (Difference: -336 (95% CI: -992, 320); P = 0.30). Acute ingestion of cricket and beef-derived protein leads to differences in postprandial plasma amino acid concentrations, but elicits similar effects on appetite hormones, appetite sensations, and ad libitum energy intake in young men.

Protein is considered the most satiating macronutrient, and its effect on satiety and food intake is source-dependent. For the first time, we compared the effect of the administration of an insect or almond preload, both containing 20 g of protein, on appetite and food intake in human subjects. Participants consumed both foods and a vehicle as a liquid preload on three separate days. They were then offered a breakfast and lunch buffet meal at which food intake was measured. Visual analogue scale (VAS) questionnaires were completed following the three preloads to assess appetite and other sensations. At breakfast, reduced energy intake was observed for both preloads compared with vehicle. At lunch, food intake only differed in the insect group, which consumed more than the vehicle. Insect preload increased the total amount of protein ingested with a slight increase in total energy consumed, differently than almond, which significantly increased total protein and energy consumed. There was no correlation between indigestion-sensation ratings and food intake. Moreover, the insect preload resulted in lower sleepiness and tiredness ratings compared with the almond preload. Thus, insect-derived protein may be suitable as a safe ingredient for snacks intended for elderly or infirm patients who require increased protein intake.