Input-output Model Research Articles

Agri-Food Sector in Ukraine and Poland: A Comparative Analysis Using the Input–Output Model

The war in Ukraine and the COVID-19 pandemic have shown that Ukraine is strongly integrated with global agricultural markets, is of great importance for the world’s food security, and can effectively compete with Poland in exporting to EU markets. Contrary to Poland, the agri-food sector in Ukraine has not yet been the subject of research using input–output tables. The input–output model has many advantages in studying the structures of individual sectors and their connections with other sectors of the economy and with foreign countries. Therefore, the current study fills the existing research gap. The aim of the article is a comparative analysis of the agri-food sectors in Ukraine and Poland in 2020 (during the COVID-19 pandemic) using the input–output model. The data source is the OECD TiVA database. The main conclusion is that Poland is further along the path of agricultural and food sector development than Ukraine. The study also reveals that in terms of value, the agri-food sector in Ukraine is significantly smaller than in Poland, but it is more important in the Ukrainian economy, with agriculture being its dominant link, while in Poland it is the food industry. The Polish agri-food sector is characterized by a higher import dependency of gross output. Exports play a significant role in the distribution of the gross output of Ukraine’s agriculture and Poland’s food industry. However, the export directions differed significantly. Poland exported mainly to the EU, while Ukraine exported to Asian and Middle Eastern countries.

Hybrid multi-stage steel footprinting unveils a more interdependent material foundation of the global economy

Steel is foundational to modern society, yet tracking its socio-economic metabolism is challenging due to the complex global trade networks. Traditional indicators, such as domestic material consumption (DMC) and consumption-based material footprints (MF), typically focus on metal ore extraction, overlooking the multiple stages of steel production and consumption. To address this, we integrate multi-national anthropogenic steel cycles and international trade networks of steel-containing products into a global monetary multi-regional input-output (MRIO) model. We construct material efficiency indicators based on footprints of iron ores, crude steel, castings, finished steel, and fabricated steel products, comparing them with conventional economy-wide material flow indicators like domestic material production (DMP) and DMC. Our findings reveal that per capita multi-stage MF indicators exhibit more robust log-linear relationships with per capita GDP with an average R2 value of 0.72 compared to 0.10 and 0.18 for DMP and DMC. Shares of Embodied trade in total global production exceed direct trade by 24 percentage points on average, emphasizing the significance of international embodied metal transfers. Using multi-stage MF indicators also reduces disparities in material efficiency between developed and developing countries. This study unravels the intricacies of global steel supply chains and the true interdependencies of steel-containing products among countries.

Fighting Alone or Mutual Benefit and Win? A Study on Forestry Embodied Energy Competition Network Based on MRIO

Abstract Measuring energy usage in the forestry trade is a topic of great significance. In this article, we use the World Input–Output Database and the multiregional input–output model to establish an embodied energy competition network and assess the influence of global value chain (GVC) integration on competition. The results show that (1) the intensity of competition for embodied energy in forestry is higher for exports compared with imports. Additionally, the import competition network exhibits lower connectivity and overall efficiency. (2) The core regions of the competitive network are primarily found in Europe, Asia, and the Americas. The United States consistently maintains a competitive advantage. However, forestry policies have led to a decline in the status of the United States, (3) The hierarchical structure of export competition is more pronounced. When the weighting degree exceeds 200, this phenomenon becomes more pronounced. (4) From the perspective of GVC, positive embedding in the GVC is negatively correlated with import competition. Backward GVC embedding is positively correlated with import and export competition. On the basis of the above results, this article proposes that countries where backward embedding is the main method should actively participate in building appropriate export international associations, participating in international organizations, and building a relatively harmonious and stable export competition market, thereby helping to maintain economic development and energy environment management.

Should developed regions bear more responsibility in addressing environmental issues? Insights from Indonesia's unequal regional development

Addressing environmental issues is inherently complex due to the fundamental question of who should bear the responsibility. While it is more prominent at the global level, this issue is also pertinent at a subnational level, such as in Indonesia, where significant disparities exist in economic development and environmental degradation across the archipelago. Our research intends to fill the gap by measuring environmental footprints in the country by accounting for the interregional trade between provinces. We integrate an Interregional Input-Output (IRIO) model developed by Indonesia's Central Bureau of Statistics with the national sectoral energy input dataset, the blue water consumption vector from EXIOBASE, and the national land use map, creating an Environmentally-Extended Interregional Input-Output (EE IRIO). The study revealed that Indonesia's carbon and water footprints are primarily consumed and produced on Java Island; meanwhile, the agricultural footprint is produced on Sumatra and Kalimantan Island but consumed significantly on Java Island. This result corresponds with Java Island's domination in terms of the economy and population. The study revealed that developed regions produce footprints directly and induce footprint generation in other areas through import demand, emphasizing the relevance of ‘common but differentiated responsibility’ in local development.

Global supply chain drivers of water use in Sub-Saharan Africa: Taking Ghana as a case

Local water use is significantly affected by distant economies through global supply chains. Ghana is one of the largest trade hubs in sub-Saharan Africa, and large amounts of Ghana's water use are embodied in international exports. Previous studies have made efforts to evaluate direct water use in Ghana but overlooked nations and sectors indirectly driving Ghana's water use. This study explored global supply chain drivers of Ghana's water use during 2012–2021, based on the global environmentally extended multi-regional input-output (EE-MRIO) model. Results revealed that the total water use of Ghana was 9790 million m3 (Mm3) during this period. About 39% of Ghana's water use is attributed to foreign consumption and more than 12% is driven by the US and the UK. The domestic and foreign demand for the products of the “spices and pharmaceutical crops” sector is an important sectoral driver of Ghana's water use. From the supply side, domestic primary inputs account for 93.1% of the national water use whereas only 6.9% is attributed to foreign primary inputs. The domestic sectoral suppliers are mainly the “spices, and pharmaceutical crops” and “wholesale and retail trade” sectors. The critical foreign nations from the supply side are China and Cote d’Ivoire, enabling 88.5 Mm3 and 59.0 Mm3 of Ghana's water use respectively. Demand-side initiatives (i.e., consumer tax and education) and supply-side measures (i.e., efficient water use compliance) should be integrated with existing production-side policies to regulate sub-Saharan Africa's water use.

The green trade benefits and horizontal ecological compensation from the perspective of embodied carbon emissions: A case study of the Yellow River Basin, China

The horizontal ecological compensation plays an important role in balancing the interests of all parties and coordinating regional development in the basin. However, the mechanism of ecological compensation based on embodied carbon emissions is still poorly understood. Here, taking the Yellow River Basin as the research area, we use the multi-regional input-output (MRIO) model to measure the embodied carbon transfers between its seven urban agglomerations in 2012 and 2017 from the viewpoint of value-added trade benefits. Further, for the first time, the green trade benefits and ecological compensation amounts are analyzed. The results indicate that: (1) The transfer of trade-embodied carbon among the urban agglomerations in the basin showed obvious spatial heterogeneity and geographic proximity effects, and trade-embodied carbon outflows (inflows) had a pattern of “highest in the midstream, second in the downstream, and lowest in the upstream”. (2) The industry composition of the urban agglomerations in relation to embodied carbon outflows (inflows) was similar, mainly in the service and heavy manufacturing industries. (3) The spatial pattern of green trade benefits in the basin had shifted from “high in the north and low in the surrounding area” to “high in the east-central part and low in the west”. (4) The pattern of ecological compensation in the basin had shifted from the upstream surplus, the middle and downstream deficit to the midstream deficit, and the upstream and downstream surplus. Therefore, we recommend improving energy structures in high-demand urban agglomerations by adopting clean energy, focusing on decarbonization and energy efficiency in resource-rich regions. Additionally, promoting low-carbon economies, especially in the service and heavy manufacturing industries, implementing differentiated emission reduction strategies, and optimizing carbon compensation mechanisms considering regional disparities and resource endowments are crucial. It is expected that the study can enrich the scientific basis of horizontal ecological compensation and increase the fairness of regional carbon emission rights allocation.

Economic gains from geographic shifts in international sourcing

The geographic evolution of global value chains (GVCs) has been significantly changing the pace and structure of economic development in many countries. We first employ a global input-output (IO) model to quantify the contribution of geographic shifts in international sourcing to China's economic gains. In 2019, China's GDP per capita was 11% below the world average. We show, however, that the gap would have been 39% if there had been no international sourcing shifts between 1995 and 2019. We subsequently propose an optimization model in the global IO framework to explore potential strategies which further improve China's GDP per capita. The optimization results suggest that import substitution and export promotion could be two possible strategies. However, these strategies could fail if all countries adopt the same strategies and participate in the non-cooperative competition. Instead, our results suggest that promoting technological upgrading provides more sustainable opportunities for improving a country's gains.

Decoupling effect and influencing factors of carbon emissions in China: Based on production, consumption, and income responsibilities

Carbon emissions at the provincial level are mostly calculated based on production responsibility, which ignores the carbon emission accounting perspectives of consumption and income responsibility. However, scientific accounting of carbon emissions from multiple perspectives is crucial to equitably distribute the responsibilities for reducing emissions. This study utilises an input–output model for multi-regional carbon emissions to calculate carbon emissions from production-, consumption- and income-based perspectives for exploring the variability in the responsibilities for reducing emissions at the provincial level. The Tapio decoupling coefficient is used to analyse the relationship between carbon emissions and economic growth in key provinces, and the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) model is used to determine the factors promoting or inhibiting the decoupling of carbon emissions under different responsibility perspectives. The results show that, firstly, the national carbon emissions illustrate the following trend: production-based emissions > income-based emissions > consumption-based emissions. Secondly, provinces in strong decoupling states are distributed in a northeast–southwest direction. Carbon emissions and decoupling situations differ among varying responsibility perspectives due to interprovincial transfers of carbon emissions. Thus, a compensation mechanism should be established to promote a fair and orderly peaking in each province. Lastly, carbon emission intensity is a factor promoting decoupling in all three perspectives. In the meantime, output scale, economic development and factor input are the major inhibiting factors for the decoupling of production-, consumption- and income-based emissions, respectively.

A revised model for calculating virtual scarce water

Accounting for virtual scarce water facilitates and improves the analysis of virtual water, and facilitates comparisons between water use embodied in products from regions with different water resource conditions. However, previous virtual scarce water models were inadequate for the analysis of both water quantity and quality, and only provided a rough estimate. To address this problem, we proposed a modification of this model. In the revised model, we determined the scarcity induced by inadequate water quality by analyzing the availability of suitable quality water for specific sectors (residential, industrial, agricultural, and environmental) rather than focusing on a single sector (usually environmental). Additionally, the revised model evaluated scarcity from water quantity by considering clean water technologies and environmental flow demand. This comprehensive scarcity measure is then incorporated into an input–output model to determine virtual scarce water. We used two typical Chinese river basins (the Hai River and Pearl River basins) with different water endowments to evaluate the model. We found that in the water-scarcity region the virtual scarce water was more strongly affected by water quality and clean water technologies, whereas in the water-rich region it was more strongly affected by the environmental flow demand. These findings underscored the need for more targeted economic and environmental policies for different regions. Water-scarcity regions should prioritize the promotion of clean water technologies and contaminant mitigation techniques, while water-rich regions should pay more attention to ensuring the environmental flow demand.

How population aging affects carbon footprints in US households: a comparative study with Japan

Abstract Demographic aging has emerged as a global societal concern, posing a challenge to decarbonization efforts. This study investigates the impact of demographic aging on household decarbonization by first quantifying age-bracket-specific household carbon footprints (HCF) in the United States (U.S.), and comparing them to Japan, a country facing the most serious aging issues among economically developed countries. To explore future challenges, an estimation of the effects of demographic shifts on HCFs to the late 2030’s using multi-regional input-output analysis. It was revealed that the highest per-capita HCF was associated with middle-aged (45–54) households, reaching 31.9 t-CO2eq/cap in the U.S., more than double the same age bracket in Japan. Due to an influx of younger immigrants in the U.S., future demographic changes are projected to increase the total HCF by 684.5 Mt-CO2eq from 2011 to 2038. In contrast, Japan is expected to see a decrease of 28.4 Mt-CO2eq from 2011 to 2040. The comparison between the U.S. and Japan highlights two distinct pathways resulting from future demographic trends, underscoring the need for CF mitigation efforts to target U.S. household demand specifically. In response to this, policy recommendations are proposed to reduce HCFs in the U.S., particularly in light of its aging and immigration challenges.

Comprehensive evaluation of CCUS technology: A case study of China's first million-tonne CCUS-EOR project

CCUS, an emerging technology for reducing carbon emission, plays a crucial role in achieving the goal of carbon neutrality. CCUS technology exemplified by CO2 enhanced oil recovery (EOR) is gradually progressing from project demonstration to large-scale application. However, the commercial application still faces uncertainties in economic cost, energy efficiency and environmental benefits. This paper takes China's first million-tonne CCUS-EOR project (Qilu Petrochemical-Shengli Oilfield CCUS-EOR project) as an example, and establishes a comprehensive research framework for evaluating CCUS from the three dimensions of energy, environment, and economy, based on economic viability, energy input-output analysis, and carbon input-output analysis. The results demonstrate that during the project lifecycle, when the average oil price is $90/bbl, the project's NPV is $56.09 million, the project's IRR is 13.4 %, the payback period is 8.34 years, and the threshold oil price for the project to be economically profitable is $81.52/bbl. Furthermore, the Energy Return on Investment (EROI) of the project is 9.09, which considerably superior to that of the Shengli Oilfield's non-EOR, and the net energy output is approximately 18,472.57 kilobarrels. The Carbon Return on Investment (CROI) of the project is 4.12, with significant environmental benefits, and the cumulative net carbon emission reduction is approximately 8078.55 kilotonnes. Furthermore, the trends in EROI and CROI of the CCUS-EOR project demonstrate nearly opposite trajectories. The variation trends in EROI emerge N-shaped curve, while that of CROI emerge S-shaped curve. In summary, the Qilu Petrochemical-Shengli Oilfield CCUS-EOR project exhibits notable advantages in terms of energy efficiency and environmental benefits. However, the threshold oil price for triggering economic profitability is relatively high, which may pose certain economic risks to investors during periods of low oil price.

Development of Prospective Economic Specializations as a Condition for Regional Economic Growth

Introduction. In the new economic conditions caused by the sanctions pressure, the Russian economy needs new sources of growth. Economic specializations in Russian regions, which are understood as prospective sectoral priorities and types of economic activity, can act as a source of revitalizing economic dynamics revival. Geopolitical turbulence and the associated focus on the development of the domestic market have led to additional attention from researchers and experts to the study of the economic specializations of Russian subjects. The objective of this study is to substantiate the development of economic specializations in the regional economy, acting as a condition for its growth. Materials and Methods. Using the materials of the Vologda Region, the export-oriented region of the Northwest, the list of economic specialization, the development of which is promising from the point of view of long-term economic growth, was formulated. The main sources of information are Rosstat data and input-output tables for the Vologda Region. The economic specializations for the region are primarily based on studies that focus on identifying and developing economic specialization in Russian regions. The use of input-output modeling methodology has allowed to determine the impact on the regional economy of extending the value chain in the timber industry due to increased domestic demand for wood products. Results. Based on the analysis of the dynamics of industrial production in the Vologda Region, it was revealed that the Vologda Region is among the regions that have felt the impact of the sanctions. Вased on the approaches of the authors engaged in the search for promising economic specializations of the region, it is established that the timber industry and tourism can act as such. The results of the input-output modeling are shown that stimulating consumer demand for woodworking products has a significant impact on the growth of a region’s economy. This demand is driven by the needs of the tourism sector. The calculations were performed in determining the significance of promoting projects for the development of hotels utilizing CLT panel-based technologies in the region. Discussion and Conclusion. In the study, it was determined that stimulating demand for the production of deep processing of wood (houses from CLT panels) would have a significant impact on the growth of the regional economy, ensuring an increase in the production of goods and services, the wage fund and the number of employed. It was also shown that the development of proposed economic specializations in the Vologda Region is promising and allows for the concentration of added value within the region, which is particularly important for the development of the domestic market. For the regional authorities, the interest lies in the possibility of obtaining a quantitative assessment of the development of economic specializations on their territory, which can be used by them in the improvement of economic policy.

Economic impacts of a drastic gas supply shock and short-term mitigation strategies

The Russian invasion of Ukraine on February 24, 2022 entailed the threat of a drastic and sudden reduction of natural gas supply to the European Union. This paper presents a techno-economic analysis of the consequences of a sudden gas supply shock to Austria, one of the most dependent countries on imports of Russian gas. Our analysis comprises (a) a detailed assessment of supply and demand side countermeasures to mitigate the immediate shortfall in Russian gas imports, (b) a mapping of the net reduction in gas supply to industrial sectors to quantify direct economic shocks and expected relative reductions in gross output and (c) the quantification of higher-order economic impacts through using a dynamic out-of-equilibrium input–output model. Our results show that potential economic consequences can range from relatively mild to highly severe, depending on the implementation and success of counteracting mitigation measures. We find that securing alternative gas imports, storage management, and incentivizing fuel switching represent the most important short-term policy levers to mitigate the adverse impacts of a sudden import stop.

Effects of hydrological variability on the sustainable use of water in a regional economy. An application to Tuscany

Existing input-output (IO) models have mainly focused on water demand. Some studies have incorporated water supply (availability), but do not take into account its natural variability, an essential element when performing a water stress analysis. The present study integrates the hydrological variability of water availability into a hydroeconomic IO model, considering its exogenous effects on water supply and its exogenous effects on water demand. Two endogenous effects are considered: i) changes in blue water requirements in the agricultural industry due to variations in precipitation and evapotranspiration, and ii) changes in grey water requirements in all discharging industries due to variations in runoff and groundwater recharge. By means of a T-years hydrological series and Monte Carlo simulations, the model allows estimating T values of the Extended Water Exploitation Index (EWEI), obtaining its empirical probability distribution and confronting it with scarcity thresholds. Additionally, the model includes a methodology to incorporate intra-annual variation, obtaining the critical month EWEI and defining a more transparent and endogenous scarcity threshold. Empirically tested for the Italian region of Tuscany considering a multivariate hydrological model for the generation of a 100-year hydrological series, our results allow a more in-depth analysis of water scarcity in the region.

Financing cross-border road connectivity: Potential impact on Sabah’s output—An input-output table analysis

Fiscal spending for road construction to link Kalabakan, Sabah, Malaysia with North Kalimantan, Indonesia is an idea that have been proposed for over 20 years. The announcement for the relocation of Indonesia’s capital city from Jakarta to East Kalimantan give a strong justification for the construction of the Serudong-Simanggaris road. The fact that population size is big in Kalimantan and strong purchasing power is estimated in North and East Kaliamantan provide a strong argument for the need to have a road link. Having said that, the effect of road construction on output growth is not clear. The purpose of this study is to estimate the impact of road construction and the business activities across two sectors being assumed on output Sabah’s output growth. Based on the input-output analysis conducted using the output multiplier, the one-off road construction would lead to 1.8% growth in Sabah’s overall output.

Anatomy of the economic value generated by a cultural event

The article measures the economic effects of decisions made by two agents in the cultural and creative sector. Managers of a cultural event decide to produce it: it mobilizes a flow of artists and creatives who materialize their creations. Individuals decide to visit it: it mobilizes a flow of individuals who produce experiences by attending the event. The result is revealed by the economic dimension of the value generated by a cultural event: new income and jobs for the host territory of the event and unique and authentic cultural experiences for those attending the event. The empirical literature has drawn attention to the need for more precise measures of economic value, in particular that do not overestimate. A combination of instruments is used: interviews (n = 6) with event managers/organizers; a face-to-face survey (n = 173) with representatives of commercial stalls; a face-to-face survey of attendees (n = 1,030); and, an input–output model is adapted to the area of impact. The article provides a methodologically useful framework for identifying and estimating more reliable measures of the material (economic) value created by a cultural event, which can be replicated in a variety of events around the world.

Biodiversity impacts of recent land-use change driven by increases in agri-food imports

Land-use change such as the conversion of natural habitat to agricultural land has been a major driver of global biodiversity loss, prompting efforts at biodiversity restoration. However, restoration measures in certain areas can shift the detrimental biodiversity impacts elsewhere through the outsourcing of agri-food supply chains to biodiverse regions. This study examines the link between biodiversity impacts from land-use change and shifts in global supply chains from 1995 to 2022 by introducing a marginal allocation into multiregional input–output analysis. Almost 80% of recent global land-use change impacts were associated with increased agri-food exports from Latin America, Africa and Southeast Asia + Pacific (excluding China). Conversely, increased imports to China, the United States, Europe and the Middle East accounted for almost 60% of recent global land-use change impacts from a consumption perspective, despite decreasing domestic impacts through restoration. Decreasing biodiversity impacts in temperate and arid regions have been partially achieved by outsourcing agri-food supply to tropical biodiversity hotspots. This results in a cumulated global extinction rate (1.4% global potential species loss since 1995), exceeding the planetary boundary by about fifty times, thus highlighting the need for policies incentivizing habitat protection in tropical regions and sustainable sourcing in agri-food supply chains.

Global spillover effects of the European Green Deal and plausible mitigation options

Achieving European Green Deal (EGD) targets for carbon removal and ecological restoration would reduce agricultural and forestry production within the European Union yet simultaneously extend ecosystem impacts elsewhere. Here we quantify such spillover impacts by coupling an extended multi-regional input–output analysis with an agro-ecological zones model. We find that EGD’s agricultural and forestry targets set for 2030 could result in a 23.9 Mha increase in demand for agricultural land outside the European Union, which in turn would lead to an increase in land-use-related carbon emissions by 758.9 MtCO2-equivalent (244.8% of EGD’s carbon removal target in the land, land-use-change and forestry sectors) and a biodiversity loss of 3.86 million mean species abundance loss. Such spillover impacts far exceed the ecological benefits from EGD conservation-based import policies, such as promoting deforestation-free products and phasing out food-based biofuel. We then propose three options beyond the primary targets of the EGD with the aim to mitigate such spillover impacts. The assessment of these options reveals the critical role of reducing meat and dairy consumption, highlighting the impact of consumer behaviour on environmental outcomes. This raises questions about public awareness, willingness to change diets and the role of policy in influencing consumer behaviours.

Multifaceted economic impacts of a 500-year flood on gateway communities of Yellowstone National Park

Disasters can have dramatic implications for gateway communities of National Parks, especially local economies that rely on park tourist visitation as their primary source of income. In June 2022, a 500-year flood event impacted Yellowstone National Park (YNP) and gateway businesses, both directly through infrastructure damages (property loss) and indirectly through park closures and post-disaster marketing. We used a combination of approaches to document and explore the relative importance of these diverse sources of economic impacts. First, structured surveys were used to evaluate economic impacts, from the perspective of individual business owners and community leaders in six gateway communities surrounding YNP. Average revenue loss was 48 % during peak tourist season across all communities but averaged 75 % for communities inaccessible to the park. Direct infrastructure damages to businesses were localized; however, even businesses sustaining property losses suggested more severe economic impacts were the result of loss of visitors from park closures and damaging media coverage. Using annual visitation and economic input-output model data, we developed a statistical model to estimate regional economic impacts from the flood. The model corroborated the results of our survey and suggested the flood led to a total loss of $156 million in visitor spending in gateway areas in 2022, exceeding economic losses from the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. We present some guidelines for building economic resilience in gateway communities, including diversifying sources of income, building social capital, embracing tourist adaptations, and developing coordinated park-gateway-regional messaging and marketing to the media post-disasters.

Research on provincial implied carbon emissions in China under the shared responsibility driven by new quality productivity: A new approach

The allocation of responsibility for carbon emissions among involved parties has garnered significant attention. This study proposes a comprehensive sharing coefficient methodology known as CVAT (direct carbon emissions, value added, and technology level) to enhance the accuracy and equity of responsibility sharing driven by the new productivity standard. This study utilizes the environmental expansion multi-region input-output (EEMRIO) model to assess China's implicit provincial carbon emissions over the previous two decades. The study investigates the characteristics of the implied carbon transfer network using social network analysis (SNA) techniques. Key findings include: (1) The CVAT method's determination of responsibility sharing coefficients aligns with fairness and efficiency principles, resulting in a more equitable distribution of implied carbon emission responsibilities conducive to achieving fair carbon emission reduction. (2) Over the research period, national implied carbon emissions exhibited an upward trajectory, increasing from 3.305 billion tons in 2002 to 9.726 billion tons in 2017, with Shandong, Hebei, and Jiangsu provinces ranking among the top emitters in China. (3) Eastern coastal and western regions function as net carbon transfer out regions, while the central, northeast, and southwest regions act as net carbon transfer in regions. (4) The implied carbon transfer network demonstrated relative stability throughout the study period, with Shandong, Hebei, Jiangsu, and Inner Mongolia emerging as major carbon transfer provinces. The study's outcomes hold significant implications for the impartial and accurate assessment of carbon emission responsibilities and the advancement of global carbon emission reduction efforts.