Inca Expansion Research Articles

New paleoparasitological investigations from the pre-inca to hispanic contact period in northern Chile

Paleoparasitological studies have demonstrated that changes in environment or culture are reflected in the patterns of parasitic infection diseases in populations worldwide. The advent of agriculture and animal domestication, with its accompanying reduction in human mobility and expanding population involves changes in or emergence of, parasites, the so-called first epidemiological transition. Cultural processes related to territory occupation contribute to both loss and acquisition of parasites. The archaeological site Lluta 57 in the Lluta Valley, Chile, provides a chronology of the transition from the pre-Inca or Late Intermediate Period (LIP), through the Late or Inca Period (LP), to the Hispanic Contact Period (HCP), providing the possibility of evaluating this epidemiological transition. The aim of this study was to conduct a paleoparasitological investigation of to gain insight into the dynamics of parasitism in Lluta people throughout the Inca expansion. Fourteen human coprolites from the three periods were rehydrated, submitted to spontaneous sedimentation, and examined by light microscopy for the presence of intestinal parasite eggs, pollen grains, and micro-remains. Eggs of four parasites: Enterobius vermicularis, Trichostrongylus sp., Trichuris sp., and Eimeria macusaniensis were recovered. Frequency, diversity, and number of parasite eggs per sample increased over the studied time period. Trichostrongylus sp. and E. macusaniensis were recorded in the region for the first time. Enterobius vermicularis eggs, absent in the LIP, were present as a hyper-infection in LP. The presence of E. macusaniensis is likely related to exploitation of llamas, which were used for food and transport and as sacrificial offerings. The paleobotanical analysis revealed ten families of pollen grains, as well as phytoliths and floral remains. In contrast to parasitological results, a diachronic pattern was not detected. Evolution of the settlements, with the advent of larger, more densely populated, villages, could have influenced the emergence and intensification of transmission of parasites in the region. The study showed that the Inca expansion influenced host-parasite-environment relationships in the Lluta Valley.

Mining, macro-regional interaction and ritual practices in the South-central Andes: The first evidence for turquoise exploitation from the Late Prehispanic and Inca periods in North-western Argentina (Cueva Inca Viejo, Puna de Salta)

In this article, we present the first and only documented source of turquoise exploited in Northwest Argentina (NOA) from the Late Prehispanic and Inca periods (ca. 900–1532CE). The evidence for turquoise mining comes from Cueva Inca Viejo, an archaeological site located in the highlands of Province of Salta. Turquoise is a valuable mineral that has been exploited for millennia in the Andean region. Until now, there was no evidence for Prehispanic sources of this material being exploited in Northern Argentina. Due to this, all the turquoise found at Argentine archaeological sites was interpreted as allochthonous. The evidence presented here contributes to discuss this issue at a regional scale. Primarily, we analyse and discuss the role played by Cueva Inca Viejo in the mining and use of this mineral, and its links with macro-regional interaction processes and ritual practices. Physicochemical analysis (SEM-EDS and XRD) allowed us to identify turquoise from the cave wall, and from the archaeological layers. Likewise, we found stone hammers, the most important artefacts closely associated to Prehispanic mining. Among the archaeological materials recovered in Cueva Inca Viejo, it is important to highlight the rock-art with representations of llama caravans and anthropomorphic figures, as well as the discovery of feathers and cebil seeds (Anadenanthera colubrina) in archaeological contexts, both originary from the lowlands. We conclude that the expansion of the Inca Empire in the area was linked to the mining and the control of ritual activity. In this regard, we highlight the presence of a ceremonial structure with stairs, located outside the entrance of Cueva Inca Viejo. Our results show that there was a narrow relationship between mining, macro-regional interactions and ritual, at least, from the Late pre-Inca Period through to Inca expansion in the region.

Under the eye of the Apu. Paths and mountains in the Inka settlement of the Hualfín and Quimivil valleys, NW Argentina

The analysis of the nature and strategies of the Inka expansion in the peripheral areas of the empire, NW Argentina among them, has long been a subject of interest for researchers. In recent years, new perspectives have started to focus on an alternative view of the Inka expansion in this area. Among these, the processes of symbolic appropriation, manipulation or re-negotiation of the regional landscapes by the Inkas have been highlighted by some authors, by paying attention to the symbiotic relationship between settlement, architecture and natural features in the landscape. Within that framework, this paper will analyse the distribution of archaeological sites from the Inka period in the Hualfín and Quimivil valleys, located in the province of Catamarca (Argentina). The results of our analysis suggest that the layout of the Inka settlements and roads in that region was influenced by two main factors: distribution along natural corridors and maximization of the visual presence of the Cerros de Aconquija, a prominent mountain range where an Inka ceremonial site was built. Considering the relevant role of certain landscape features in the Inka worldview, this is interpreted as part of a symbolic appropriation of the surrounding landscape.

Petrographic characterization and identification of temper sources in local ceramics during the Inca domination and early Spanish colony (Mendoza, west-central Argentina)

This work relies on the potential use of petrography to determine temper provenance and applies it to ceramics of west-central Argentina. Petrography is used to identify the raw materials, production technologies and, for the first time in this region, temper provenance of the Viluco ceramics of mixed Inca type produced by local Mendoza Valley populations during the Inca domination and early Spanish colony (XV–XVII centuries), along the eastern-meridional boundary of both empires. Although the area is geologically complex, being characterized by the Andes Cordillera to the west and the arid plains to the east, isolated outcrops were identified near archaeological sites and comparative petrographic studies of ceramic and geological samples were conducted. The results show that the ceramics were produced with locally available raw materials. The comparative analysis permitted identifying two sources of temper located near the archaeological sites in the Mendoza Valley: the granite stock of Cerro Cacheuta and the volcanic ash (tephra) from El Borbollón. The evidence allows suggesting that the population concentration process that was developed in the short period between the Inca Empire and the early Spanish colony in the Mendoza Valley, required the local production of Viluco ceramics. The use of local tephra inclusions, confirms that this particular tradition related to the Inca expansion and infused with symbolic significance in the marginal southern borders, was developed locally by potters as part of their membership to the Inca Empire.

The Genetic History of Peruvian Quechua-Lamistas and Chankas: Uniparental DNA Patterns among Autochthonous Amazonian and Andean Populations.

SummaryThis study focuses on the genetic history of the Quechua‐Lamistas, inhabitants of the Lamas Province in the San Martin Department, Peru, who speak their own distinct variety of the Quechua family of languages. It has been suggested that different pre‐Columbian ethnic groups from the Peruvian Amazonia, like the Motilones or “shaven heads”, assimilated the Quechua language and then formed the current native population of Lamas. However, many Quechua‐Lamistas claim to be direct descendants of the Chankas, a famous pre‐Columbian indigenous group that escaped from Inca rule in the Andes. To investigate the Quechua‐Lamistas and Chankas’ ancestries, we compared uniparental genetic profiles (17 STRs of Q‐M3 Y‐chromosome and mtDNA complete control region haplotypes) among autochthonous Amazonian and Andean populations from Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador. The phylogeographic and population genetic analyses indicate a fairly heterogeneous ancestry for the Quechua‐Lamistas, while they are closely related to their neighbours who speak Amazonian languages, presenting no direct relationships with populations from the region where the ancient Chankas lived. On the other hand, the genetic profiles of self‐identified Chanka descendants living in Andahuaylas (located in the Apurimac Department, Peru, in the Central Andes) were closely related to those living in Huancavelica and the assumed Chanka Confederation area before the Inca expansion.

Accounting in the King's Storehouse: the Inkawasi Khipu Archive

The site of Inkawasi (or Incahuasi) is located in the Cahete Valley, on the south coast of Peru. It was a major garrison and storage facility for the Inka expansion onto the south coast, built for housing and provisioning troops in the Inka assault on the Huarco peoples. Archaeological excavations of the storage facility have exposed what is to date a collection of 34 khipus (or quipus), the Inka knotted-string recording devices. We first explain why we consider the collection to constitute an “archive” and what the implications of that classification are for considering the significance of such a large collection of accounting devices associated with state storage. Several of the khipus were found associated with, or covered by, aji (Capsicum sp.), peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), and black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). We suggest that these may be the products that the khipus recorded. Several khipus were tied together, and two sets of tied, paired samples are shown to contain very similar quantitative records. Close study of the paired samples, as well as the numerical values knotted into several other khipus, reveal different strategies that were being used by the khipu-keepers to maintain “checks-and-balances” accounting. Evidence was also found of possible standardized accounting units for agricultural produce brought to Inkawasi. These took the form of a grid-like array of squares produced by impressing ropes into the floors of two rectangular sorting spaces in the storage complex. The grid-work of squares may have served in the process of spreading out the produce on the floor and collecting and accounting for these products in standardized units. We conclude with reflections on how the processes, procedures, and routines of accounting observed at Inkawasi provide information for approaching the writing of an autochthonous history of the Inka state based on the study of accounting practices.

Kinship and the Inca imperial core: Multiscalar archaeological patterns in the Sacred Valley (Cuzco, Peru)

Archaeological interpretations of the capital region of ancient empires often rely on documentary sources and assume the existence of a highly integrated and institutionalized state polity.A multiscalar archaeological study of the imperial heartland of the Inca empire (c. 1400–1530s) reveals variable manifestations in Inca power from the period of local expansion until the European invasions of the 1530s. Large-scale patterning from numerous regional surveys identifies variations in pre-Inca and Inca settlement patterns and the distribution of Inca architecture and pottery. More intensive analyses from the Sacred Valley, a study region lying immediately to the north of the Inca capital, reveal additional patterns of interaction that contrast early Inca expansion practices with later generations of royal estate development. Excavations from domestic and public buildings at the large upland village of Pukara Pantillijlla indicate limited Inca efforts to incorporate local horticulturalists and herders within their existing villages. The variability of Inca power in the Sacred Valley and the kin-based nature of the institutional forces transforming valley-bottom farming areas draw attention to the prevalent role of Inca elite kinship practices for state formation and institutional development.These observations raise important questions about the role of kinship in other non-Western states and empires.

Metallurgical traditions under Inka rule: a technological study of metals and technical ceramics from the Aconcagua Valley, Central Chile

The spread of the Inka state in the Aconcagua Valley (Central Chile) is thought to have been culturally mediated, avoiding military coercion, and thus leading to different forms of cultural acceptance, resistance or hybridisation. However, there has been no previous attempt to investigate the extent to which these interactions are reflected in the use of metals and metallurgical technologies. Here we present analytical work on metallic artefacts and technical ceramics from Cerro La Cruz and Los Nogales, two Valley sites with evidence dated to the Late Period (ca. AD 1400–1540). The analyses included SEM–EDS, optical microscopy, petrography, XRD and FTIR. The results suggest that the sites represent different technological traditions. At Cerro La Cruz, the style of the metal objects and the lack of tin bronzes reflect continuity with an ancient metallurgical tradition with bases in the Diaguita Culture, rather than a wholesale adoption of an Inka metallurgical tradition. In Los Nogales, the presence of tin bronze and the use of perforated crucibles and other technical ceramics lined with bone ash is consistent with a tradition closely related to the Inka expansion and north-western Argentina, perhaps reflecting a stronger receptivity towards the new technologies. This disparity supports the idea that the Inka domination in the Valley was not forceful, and suggests a closer relationship between the state and some local groups, not previously identified.

Yavi-Chicha and the Inka expansion: a petrographic approach

The social complexities underlying imperial control are manifest in the material culture of everyday life encountered at archaeological sites. The Yavi-Chicha pottery style of the south-central Andes illustrates how local identities continued to be expressed in practices of pottery manufacture during the process of Inka expansion. The Yavi-Chicha style itself masks a number of distinct production processes that can be traced through petrographic analysis and that relate to the different communities by whom it was produced and consumed. The dispersion of pottery fabric types in this region may partly be attributable to the Inka practice of mitmaqkuna, the displacement and relocation of entire subject populations.

Between Andes and Amazon: the genetic profile of the Arawak-speaking Yanesha.

The Yanesha are a Peruvian population who inhabit an environment transitional between the Andes and Amazonia. They present cultural traits characteristic of both regions, including in the language they speak: Yanesha belongs to the Arawak language family (which very likely originated in the Amazon/Orinoco lowlands), but has been strongly influenced by Quechua, the most widespread language family of the Andes. Given their location and cultural make-up, the Yanesha make for an ideal case study for investigating language and population dynamics across the Andes-Amazonia divide. In this study, we analyze data from high and mid-altitude Yanesha villages, both Y chromosome (17 STRs and 16 SNPs diagnostic for assigning haplogroups) and mtDNA data (control region sequences and 3 SNPs and one INDEL diagnostic for assigning haplogroups). We uncover sex-biased genetic trends that probably arose in different stages: first, a male-biased gene flow from Andean regions, genetically consistent with highland Quechua-speakers and probably dating back to Inca expansion; and second, traces of European contact consistent with Y chromosome lineages from Italy and Tyrol, in line with historically documented migrations. Most research in the history, archaeology and linguistics of South America has long been characterized by perceptions of a sharp divide between the Andes and Amazonia; our results serve as a clear case-study confirming demographic flows across that 'divide'.

Reconceiving the Chronology of Inca Imperial Expansion

The basic chronology of Inca imperial expansion in Andean South America derives from historical accounts from the Spanish Colonial era, but several issues with this traditional chronology have arisen in recent decades. Advances in radiocarbon dating and calibration now give us some ability to refine or rebuild the chronology, and guidelines for obtaining the most useful dates are discussed. Dates recently obtained from the site of Chamical in the southern highlands of Ecuador are evaluated according to those guidelines, and they suggest Inca expansion to the north began 1 to 2 decades earlier than allowed in the traditional chronology. The chronology of Inca expansion presented in the Spanish chronicles is called into question by these and other dates, and by a reconsideration of the nature of sources of Inca history utilized by Spanish writers. Evidence suggests a primary Inca form of recording provincial conquests resulted in lists that were ordered geographically. However, those records were interpreted by colonial writers as being chronologically ordered, which led to written histories of Inca expansion that are not consistent with the actual historical sequence of events. As a result, the preferred approach to building a chronology of Inca expansion should be based on14C dates, with historical sources used to supplement rather than structure the timeline.

Semiótica, paisaje social y arte rupestre de época incaica en la cuenca superior del Río Aconcagua, Chile central

This article presents a semiotic approach to study three petroglyphs sites in Cerro Tuququre, Valle de Putaen-do, central Chile with the aim of detecting internal spatial structuring patterns and determine the role of these places in the construction of social landscape during Incas occupation in the region. A theoretic-methodological frame based on Pierce’s semiotics is proposed, emphasizing two different levels of analysis: syntactic and prag-matic. The results from syntactic analysis show that there is a dual structure constructed by the same spatial logic in the three sites. To achieve pragmatic analysis, regional contextual data and previous stylistic analysis are considered, taking into account two different levels of structural variation in rock art: landscape and style. Some contextual similarities with another petroglyph site of the region suggests that both places played an active role in the re-signification of social landscape in Aconcagua upper basin during Inca expansion. In this context, stylistic changes may reflect the circulation of messages under a novel situation shared with other regions of Collasuyu, which produced the modification of iconographic codes.

Reconceiving the Chronology of Inca Imperial Expansion

The basic chronology of Inca imperial expansion in Andean South America derives from historical accounts from the Spanish Colonial era, but several issues with this traditional chronology have arisen in recent decades. Advances in radiocarbon dating and calibration now give us some ability to refine or rebuild the chronology, and guidelines for obtaining the most useful dates are discussed. Dates recently obtained from the site of Chamical in the southern highlands of Ecuador are evaluated according to those guidelines, and they suggest Inca expansion to the north began 1 to 2 decades earlier than allowed in the traditional chronology. The chronology of Inca expansion presented in the Spanish chronicles is called into question by these and other dates, and by a reconsideration of the nature of sources of Inca history utilized by Spanish writers. Evidence suggests a primary Inca form of recording provincial conquests resulted in lists that were ordered geographically. However, those records were interpreted by colonial writers as being chronologically ordered, which led to written histories of Inca expansion that are not consistent with the actual historical sequence of events. As a result, the preferred approach to building a chronology of Inca expansion should be based on14C dates, with historical sources used to supplement rather than structure the timeline.

Itinerant Experts, Alternative Harvests:Kamayuqin the Service ofQhapaqand Crown

Inka expansion into south coastal Peru (Chinchasuyu) is well documented in the archaeological record and in historical narratives that celebrate Inka achievements in Ica and Chincha. The lesser-known Pisco Valley equally benefited from Inka largesse as a result of a restructuring of the region by Thupa Inka, who is thought to have dispatched corps of occupational specialists (kamayuq) there. Centering on a group of kamayuq in Pisco, this research traces their movements and activities during and after Inka reign. Attention is drawn to their innovative transition from salt specialists to wine producers. The work contributes to a regional history of Pisco and offers a local perspective on the effects of the indigenous relocations instituted by Viceroy Francisco de Toledo. It attempts to unite and reconcile fragmentary historical sources about colonial Inka provincial peoples with the archaeological record and directs questions for future research.

Cultural Transformations of the Chanka Homeland (Andahuaylas, Peru) During the Late Intermediate Period (A.D. 1000–1400)

AbstractOne of the largest demographic shifts to occur in Andean prehistory took place during the Late Intermediate Period (A.D. 1000–1400). Across a large expanse of the central Andes a vast number of lower elevation settlements were abandoned and local populations were concentrated in newly constructed, defensibly positioned sites, located along high ridges. In this article we examine this dramatic settlement shift in relation to the Chanka ethnic group that occupied the Andahuaylas region (Department of Apurimac, Peru). The results indicate that the shift from valley to hilltop settlements in the Andahuaylas region occurred around A.D. 1000. We propose that the shift reflects an increased dependency on agro-pastoralism that resulted from a period of climate change. We also suggest that in this region of the Andes the shift was augmented by growing levels of political competition after the dissolution of the Wari Empire and that current models, which situate the Chanka as a uniquely powerful ethnic group at the time of the Inca expansion, need to be reexamined.

ON THE BEGINNING OF THE LATE HORIZON

An argument is proposed for an earlier temporal placement of the beginning of the Late Horizon than the one made by John H. Rowe in 1945. Rowe followed Cabello Valboa (1586), who placed this event late in the rule of Thupa Inca Yupanqui and after the conquests of both Quito and Chile. The reading offered here is anchored instead in the Relación de Chincha (1558), collected from local sources in the Chinch a valley. The south coast, including Ica, appears to have been annexed at the time of the Inca Pachacut’s campaign in Soras. Thus, the event that marks the beginning of the Late Horizon can be placed fully a generation earlier than the Rowe placement, and near the beginning of Inca expansion outside of the Cuzco region.

El dominio inca en la localidad de Caspana: Un acercamiento al pensamiento político andino (río Loa, norte de Chile)

This paper presents the archaeological record for five late pre-Hispanic sites located in Caspana, in order to discuss Inca expansion in the upper river Loa basin (Atacama Desert). A first categorization of these sites enables to establish a distinction between: a) locals settlements with low presence of inca features ‐the case of Aldea Talikuna and Estancia Mulorojte; b) pure inca settlements, which include Cerro Verde, Incahuasi Inca and Vega Salada ‐mineral, agricultural and/or cattle sites, and c) shared settlements where both identities are displayed in a symbolically laden context ‐like Los Abuelos cemetery. Our analysis of the material culture associated to these sites suggests a set of significant differences and similarities that would be the result of a direct and planned ruling strategy deployed by the Inca State through elaborately complex symbolical means.

ESQUEMAS VISUALES Y EMPLAZAMIENTO DE LAS REPRESENTACIONES RUPESTRES DE CAMÉLIDOS DEL LOA SUPERIOR EN TIEMPOS INCAICOS: ¿UNA NUEVA ESTRATEGIA DE INCORPORACIÓN DE ESTE TERRITORIO AL TAWANTINSUYU?

I present the results of study rock art dated to the Late period (1.450- 1.540 A.D.), which corresponds to the Inka presence in the upper Loa region. Particularly, I analized camelid representations from several sites of the Salado river basin and compared them with representation from the upper Loa river. I present an analysis of anatomical forms defined as visual schemaes, along with observations about the location of the rock art, related to different activities of everyday life. The described characteristics of Late period rock art suggest a tight relation to the Inka expansion in the region. My hypothesis, expands on previous interpretations, for the Salado river basin, which consider that the rock art was used by the Inka as a strategy for domination and integration into Tawantinsuyu, carried out in a different fashion in the upper Loa basin

ARTE RUPESTRE EN ASENTAMIENTOS DEL PERÍODO TARDÍO EN LOS VALLES DE LLUTA Y AZAPA, NORTE DE CHILE

This paper intends to contribute to discussion of the Inka state expansion toward the peripheral areas of the southern Andes, including the Lluta and Azapa coastal valleys, northern Chile. This process is analysed through exploration of the role of rock art -as a material medium for ideological transmission- in the Inka integration of local populations. We try to demonstrate whether it is possible to recognize an Inka rock art and how this was related to the Inka expansion. We analyse three small residential sites, which include engraved stones and were occupied, at least, during the Late period (ca. 1300-1450 A.D.). Millune and Vinto are in the Lluta valley and Achuyo is in the Azapa valley. Based on differences in the formal attributes of the rock art, and associated features such as decorated pottery, architecture and spatial organization of the rock art, we postulate the existence of a local and pre-Inka rock art style. This style was transformed and utilized by the Inka state as an ideological tool, based on their imperial interest, for the conquest and control of this province. We conclude that the most remarkable change took place in the conversion of formal aspects of the local rock art style to more standardized, Inka style, and in the relocation of the rock art scenario from private to public spaces

Processes of State Formation in the Inca Heartland (Cuzco, Peru)

This article addresses Inca state formation in the central highlands of Peru. Using ethnohistoric materials and new archaeological survey data from three areas surrounding Cuzco, the capital of the Inca empire, we argue that rapid Inca expansion after C.E. 1400 was made possible by long‐term processes of state formation and regional consolidation. From C.E. 1000‐1400, a centralized state developed in the Cuzco Valley, extending its direct administrative control over numerous neighboring groups. Less powerful neighboring polities accepted Inca adm nistration early on, perhaps even n tiating Inca patronage. Strong rivals to Inca control maintained their independence, at times depopulating intermediate areas and settling in defensive sites to protect settlements and resources. Finally, groups of intermediate complexity used alliances and violence to align themselves with the strongest regional competitors. Such variability in regional integration strategies reveals how Inca state formation processes influenced later patterns of imperial conquest and administraton. [Keywords: inca, state formation, imperialism, archaeology, ethnicityl