Initial Growth Period Research Articles

Use of quantile regression and discriminant analysis to describe growth patterns in farmed gilthead sea bream ( Sparus aurata)

Most mathematical models of fish growth on commercial farms use the evolution of average weight during the growth period, without considering weight distribution. In this paper, quantile regression techniques were used to describe the evolution of weight distribution in 20 batches of gilthead sea bream ( Sparus aurata) growing on a commercial fish farm in the Spanish Mediterranean. Different Thermal-unit Growth Coefficients ( TGC) were obtained for several quantiles (5, 25, 50, 75 and 95%) in a group of heterogeneous batches, whereas a single TGC was observed in another group of homogeneous batches. Thus, the growth patterns observed were either homogeneous or heterogeneous. Discriminant analysis helped to identify variables that affected the classification of batches, namely, the coefficient of variation in initial weight and daily average temperature variation during the initial growth period.

Rapid self-magnetization of laser speckles in plasmas by nonlinear anisotropic instability

Presented here are the first kinetic two-dimensional Vlasov– Fokker–Planck calculations of inertial confinement fusion-related laser–plasma interactions, to include self-consistent magnetic fields, hydrodynamic plasma expansion and anisotropic electron pressure. An underdense plasma, reminiscent of the gas fill of a hohlraum, is heated by a laser speckle with Iλ2=1.0×1015 W cm− 2μm2 and radius w0=5 μm. Inverse bremsstrahlung absorption of the laser and non-local electron transport lead to the development of a collisional analogue of the Weibel electromagnetic instability. The instability is seeded by magnetic fields, generated in an initial period of linear growth due to the anisotropic electron distribution arising in a laser speckle. Using the circular polarization does not generate significant fields. For linear polarization, the field generally saturates when the magnetization is ωτei> 1, and the effective growth rate is similar to the coherence time of typical laser speckles. The presence of these magnetic fluctuations significantly affects the heat fluxes and hydrodynamics in the plasma.

Inter-relationship between Nuclei and Gross Characteristics of Manganese Nodules, Central Indian Ocean Basin

More than 200 samples of manganese nodules from the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) were studied for their different parameters. The study included various aspects such as morphology, texture, mineralogy, and composition of the nodules. The nuclei of the nodules were also examined along with the oxide layers. We attempt to correlate the nucleus (their type and abundance) with the nodule parameters such as their external morphology, chemical composition, and suitable location of formation, amongst others. We found various nucleating materials and these include rock fragments (fresh and altered), clay, pumice and sharks' teeth. In a majority of the cases, rock fragments are dominant in the core of the nodules and these conform to that of the seafloor basalts. The shape of the nuclei influences that of the nodules, especially during their initial period of growth. Irrespective of the kind of nuclei, todorokite is the main mineral of the nodules. The nodules of the CIOB were formed mostly due to hydrogenous accretion of ferromanganese oxides while diagenetic contribution of metals is less common.

Impact of Roundup 41% aqua on physiological index of soybean at one-trifoliolate leaf stage

摘要: 采用随机区组设计方法,在第一复叶期喷施不同剂量的农达41%水剂,研究了其对不同大豆品种叶片叶绿素含量指数、莽草酸含量和SOD活性等生理指标的影响.结果表明:喷施农达41%水剂可以抑制抗草甘膦大豆"RR1"、"RR2"和普通大豆"晋大75"、"晋豆27"叶片的叶绿素合成,"RR1"、"RR2"在最高剂量(1.85 kg·hm-2) 时受抑制不明显,而"晋大75"和"晋豆27"在较低剂量(0.46 kg·hm-2 )时即明显受害."RR1"和"RR2"在高剂量(1.85 kg·hm-2)农达41%水剂下,莽草酸仍积累较少,而"晋大75"和"晋豆27"在较低剂量(0.46 kg·hm-2 )时体内莽草酸就大量积累.随农达41%水剂剂量增加,"RR1"和"RR2"体内的SOD活性增加,"晋大75"和"晋豆27"在较低剂量0.46 kg·hm-2时诱发了体内SOD活性,但随着剂量的增加,体内SOD活性受到抑制.总的来说,抗草甘膦大豆对农达41%水剂的抗性大于普通大豆,"RR1"的抗性大于"RR2","晋豆27"(晚熟)大于"晋大75"(早熟). 关键词: 除草剂 / 抗草甘膦大豆 / 农达41%水剂 / 叶绿素含量 / 莽草酸含量 / SOD活性

Effect of Biofilm Properties on the Electrochemical Performance of Microbial Fuel Cells

With much of the MFC research around the world being focused on the engineering of the reactors, understanding the fundamental relationship between the microbiology and electrochemistry is critical to the advancement of this technology. Biofilms of variable thickness were grown separately in different microbial fuel cell reactors which were subjected to extensive electrochemical and microbiological tests. The correlation between microbial biofilm properties and the electrochemical performance was investigated in detail. It was found that the cell count, biofilm density and the type of communities in the anode biofilm had a direct influence on the power output of microbial fuel cells. Also the power density was directly dependent on the biofilm growth and increased significantly during the initial biofilm growth period. A variation in the biofilm morphology and composition was observed during the biofilm growth period which may have a serious impact on the performance of the microbial fuel cells.

A cost-effective high-throughput microcosm system for studying nitrogen dynamics at the plant-microbe-soil interface

In the present study a new microcosm system was evaluated for its suitability to investigate nitrogen dynamics between soils, plants and microbes. Five different agricultural soils were ho- mogenized and transferred in the test tubes, and kept under controlled conditions in a climate chamber for 4weeks. Soils differed clearly in nitrogen pools and microbial population structures but less in their activities. Bacterial and fungal community composi- tions and soil properties, except gross N transformation rates, remained stable and reproducible during the test period in all soils. 15 N tracer studies showed that N uptake patterns of barley as well as plant growth were linear in the initial growth period. Overall, the presented microcosm system proved to be a powerful tool to elucidate N pathways in soil-plant-microbe systems. In future studies the microcosm system may greatly help generating new insights in the complex

Soil erosion under simulated rainfall in relation to phenological stages of soybeans and tillage methods in Lages, SC, Brazil

Soil tillage may increase vulnerability to water erosion, whereas no tillage and other conservation cultivation techniques are viewed as strategies to control soil erosion. The objective of this research was to quantify runoff and soil losses by water erosion under different soil tillage systems at the Santa Catarina Highlands, southern Brazil. A field study was carried out using a rotating-boom rainfall simulator with 64 mm h −1 rainfall intensity on a Typic Hapludox, between April 2003 and May 2004. Five rainfall tests were applied along successive cropstages. Surface cover was none (fallow) or soybean ( Glycine max, L.). Five treatments were investigated, replicated twice. These treatments were conventional tillage on bare soil (BS) as a control treatment and the following treatments under soybean: conventional tillage (CT), no tillage over burnt crop residues on never before cultivated land (NT-B), no tillage over desiccated crop residues, also on never before cultivated land (NT-D) and traditional no tillage over desiccated crop residues on a soil tilled 4 years before this experiment (NT-PT). Water losses by surface runoff seemed to be more influenced by vegetative crop stadium than by tillage system and consequently a wide range of variation in surface runoff was found, following successive cropstages. The most efficient tillage system in reducing surface runoff and soil losses was no tillage, particularly the NT-PT treatment. Sediment losses were more influenced by tillage system than water losses. In the NT-B, NT-D and NT-PT treatments the rate of sediment losses along the crop vegetative cycle showed a tendency to increase from the first to the second cropstages and later to decrease from the third cropstage onwards. In the conventionally tilled treatment (CT) soil losses were greater than in any of the no tillage treatments (NT-D, NT-B and NT-PT) during the initial growth periods, but at the end of the vegetative period differences in sediment rates between tilled and non-tilled treatments tended to be smaller. In the BS control treatment, soil losses progressively increased following the vegetative growth season of soybean.

Bubble growth with chemical reactions in microchannels

This work investigates the nucleation and growth of CO 2 bubbles due to chemical reactions of sulfuric acid and sodium bicarbonate in three types of microchannels: one with uniform cross-section, one converging, and another one diverging. The Y-shaped test section, composed of main and two front microchannels, was made of P-type 〈1 0 0〉 orientation SOI (silicon on insulator) wafer. Bubble nucleation and growth in microchannels under various conditions were observed using a high-speed digital camera. The theoretical model for bubble dynamics with a chemical reaction is reviewed or developed. In the present study, no bubble was nucleated at the given inlet concentration and in the range of flow rate in the converging microchannel while the nucleation and growth of bubbles were observed in the diverging and uniform cross-section microchannels. Bubbles are nucleated at the channel wall and the equivalent bubble radius increases linearly during the initial period of the bubble growth. The bubble growth behavior for a particular case, without relative motion between the bubble and liquid, shows that the mass diffusion controls the bubble growth; consequently, the bubble radius grows as a square root of the time and agrees very well with the model in the literature. On the other hand, for other cases the bubbles stay almost at the nucleation site while growing with a constant gas product generation rate resulting in the instant bubble radius following the one-third power of the time.

Magnetic Materials for Three-Dimensional Damascene Metallization: Void-Free Electrodeposition of Ni and Ni70Fe30 Using 2-Mercapto-5-benzimidazolesulfonic Acid

Superconformal filling of submicrometer trenches with electrodeposited Ni is demonstrated using a electrolyte containing 2-mercapto-5-benzimidazolesulfonic acid (MBIS). The process offers the ability to build three-dimensional magnetically active structures that may be easily integrated with other state-of-the-art metallization schemes. MBIS acts to inhibit Ni(Fe) electrodeposition, although under certain conditions rapid, autocatalytic breakdown accompanies the onset of Ni deposition. Optimal trench filling is associated with the positive feedback process, moderated by electrolyte internal-resistance losses, and manifests as a hysteretic voltammetric response on planar electrodes for an MBIS concentration . On freshly immersed substrates, trench filling is characterized by an initial period of uniform growth followed by the development of a v-notch geometry associated with transient depletion of MBIS within the recessed feature. Interestingly, the finest submicrometer features are filled while only minimal deposition occurs on the neighboring free surface. Continued growth of the MBIS derived v-notch geometry also results in void-free filling of the larger features by geometrical leveling. The same behavior is observed for soft magnetic alloys, such as Ni-rich Ni–Fe alloys. Preliminary experiments indicated that MBIS does not significantly perturb the low coercivity of Ni–Fe alloys, an important attribute for prospective technical applications.

Cursorial spiders retard initial aphid population growth at low densities in winter wheat

Generalist predators contribute to pest suppression in agroecosystems. Spider communities, which form a substantial fraction of the generalist predator fauna in arable land, are characterized by two functional groups: web-building and cursorial (non-web-building) species. We investigated the relative impact of these two functional groups on a common pest (Sitobion avenae, Aphididae) in wheat by combining a molecular technique that revealed species-specific aphid consumption rates with a factorial field experiment that analyzed the impact, separately and together, of equal densities of these two spider functional groups on aphid population growth. Only cursorial spiders retarded aphid population growth in our cage experiment, but this effect was limited to the initial aphid-population growth period and low-to-intermediate aphid densities. The molecular analysis, which used aphid-specific primers to detect aphid DNA in predator species, detected the highest proportion of aphid-consuming individuals in two cursorial spiders: the foliage-dwelling Xysticus cristatus (Thomisidae) and the ground-active Pardosa palustris (Lycosidae). The results suggest that manipulating the community composition in favour of pest-consuming functional groups may be more important for improving biological control than fostering predator biodiversity per se. Agricultural management practices that specifically foster effective species or functional groups (e.g. mulching for cursorial spiders) should receive more attention in low-pesticide farming systems.

Combined effect of ultraviolet‐B radiation and cadmium contamination on nutrient uptake and photosynthetic pigments in Brassica campestris L. seedlings

Environmental and industrial pollution along with increase in ground level UV-B radiation, because of stratospheric ozone depletion, present multiple stresses, which may affect crop photosynthesis and productivity. The present study was undertaken to see interactive effects of heavy metal contamination (Cd(2+)) and UV-B exposure on essential nutrient (Ca(2+), Mg(2+), K(+)) uptake, biomass, and chlorophyll content in mustard (Brassica campestris L.) seedlings. Plants grown in 0.5, 1.0, 2.5, and 5.0 mg L(-1) Cd(2+) supplemented medium were exposed to UV-B for 30 min (0.4 mW cm(-2)) per day. The interactive effect of two stresses measured after 5 and 10 days showed an overall decline in biomass. Under dual stress (5 mg Cd(2+) L(-1)) significant (P < 0.001) decrease in chlorophyll a (43%), chlorophyll b (23%), and carotenoid (53%) was observed. Ca(2+) uptake was reduced by 51% in roots under high doses of Cd(2+) (5 mg L(-1)) and simultaneous exposure to 0.4 mW cm(-2) UV-B for 10 days. Mg(2+) content was reduced by 48% and K(+) by 62% under similar exposure conditions. Decline in nutrient uptake in Brassica campestris L. seedlings was observed both in root and shoot leaf in the initial growth period under controlled lab conditions. Cadmium ion (Cd(2+)) uptake was significantly enhanced by 33% (P < 0.001) in the presence of UV-B. The findings are significant as multiple stress conditions prevalent in the environment play an important role during the early growth period, a period critical for crop yield.

Evaluation of Lignocellulosic Wastes for Production of Edible Mushrooms

The degradation of lignocellulosic wastes such as paddy straw, sorghum stalk, and banana pseudostem was investigated during solid-state fermentation by edible mushrooms Pleurotus eous and Lentinus connotus. Biological efficiency of 55-65% was observed in paddy straw followed by sorghum stalk (45%) and banana pseudostem (33%) for both fungal species. The activity of extracellular enzymes, namely cellulase, polyphenol oxidase, and laccase, together with the content of cellulose, lignin, and phenols, was studied in spent substrates on seventh, 17th, and 27th days of spawning, and these values were used as indicators of the extent of lignocellulosic degradation by mushroom. Both the mushroom species proved to be efficient degraders of lignocellulosic biomass of paddy straw and sorghum stalk, and the extent of cellulose degradation was 63-72% of dry weight (d.w.), and lignin degradation was 23-30% of the d.w. In banana pseudostem, the extent of the degradation was observed to be only 15-22% of the d.w. for both lignin and cellulose. Preferential removal of cellulose during initial growth period and delayed degradation of lignin were observed in all three substrates. This is associated with decrease in activity of cellulase and polyphenol oxidase and increase in laccase activity with spawn aging in spent substrates. Thus, bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass by P. eous and L. connotus offers a promising way to convert low-quality biomass into an improved human food.

The turbulent equilibration of an unstable baroclinic jet

The evolution of an unstable baroclinic jet, subject to a small perturbation, is examined numerically in a quasi-geostrophic two-layer β-channel model. After a period of initial wave growth, wave breaking leads to turbulence within each layer, and to the eventual equilibration of the flow. The equilibrated flow must satisfy certain dynamical constraints: total momentum is conserved, the total energy is bounded and the flow must be realizable via some area-preserving (diffusive) rearrangement of the initial potential vorticity field in each layer. A theory is introduced that predicts the equilibrated flow in terms of the initial flow parameters. The idea is that the equilibrated state minimizes available potential energy, subject to the constraints on total momentum and total energy, and the further ‘kinematic’ constraint that the potential vorticity changes through a process of complete homogenization within well-delineated regions in each layer. Within a large region of parameter space, the theory accurately predicts the cross-channel structure and strength of the equilibrated jet, the regions where potential vorticity mixing takes place, and total eddy mass (temperature) fluxes. Results are compared with predictions from a maximum-entropy theory that allows for more general rearrangements of the initial potential vorticity field, subject to the known dynamical constraints. The maximum-entropy theory predicts that significantly more available potential energy is released than is observed in the simulations, and that an unphysical ‘exchange’ of bands of fluid will occur across the channel in the lower layer. The kinematic constraint of piecewise potential vorticity homogenization is therefore important in limiting the ‘efficiency’ of release of available potential energy in unstable baroclinic flows. For a typical initial flow, it is demonstrated that if the dynamical constraints alone are considered, then over twice as much potential energy is available for release compared to that actually released in the simulations.

Exposure to English Before and After Entry into Head Start1: Bilingual Children's Receptive Language Growth in Spanish and English

This investigation examined the Spanish and English receptive vocabulary and language comprehension abilities of bilingual preschoolers who attended Head Start over a two-year period. It was hypothesised that bilingual children's development would follow linear trajectories and that the development of children who were only exposed to Spanish in the home prior to school entry would differ from children with exposure to Spanish and English from birth. Results revealed that the two groups’ language abilities in Spanish and English differed at the beginning of the study as measured by raw and standard scores and that these differences were maintained over the two years. The exceptions to this were found in the children's vocabulary abilities, with the difference between the two groups’ English standard scores narrowing over time and the difference between their Spanish standard scores increasing during the two-year period. Similar to research on monolingual and bilingual children with low socioeconomic status (SES), children's development in both languages essentially followed linear trajectories. Children's raw scores on the English receptive vocabulary test accelerated, similar to research findings on monolingual children of middle SES. Also, children's standard scores on the Spanish language comprehension measure decelerated after an initial period of linear growth. Future directions for research are discussed.

The effect of powder size on induction behaviour and binder distribution during high shear melt agglomeration of calcium carbonate

Growth mechanisms in high shear mixer granulation were observed over a wide range of particle size and liquid-to-solid ( L/ S) ratio. The materials used were calcium carbonate (CaCO 3; size fractions in the range 1.5 to 85 μm) with a binder of polyethylene glycol 6000 (PEG 6k). The binder, solid at room temperature, was added by the “melt-in” method. A 10 L vertical-axis granulator was used, with a chopper and a four-bladed impeller. The mean granule size and granule size distribution were measured at regular intervals during the agglomeration process by careful sampling and sieving. The uniformity of binder distribution among the granules was also measured. The growth behaviours of each grade of primary particles were classified and compared. An induction type mechanism was observed with an initial period of slow growth in mean particle size that lasted 2 to 3 min (the induction period). This was followed by a short rapid growth phase lasting 1 to 2 min. The final stage was a plateau of more or less zero growth. Interestingly, the end of the induction period and the onset of rapid growth corresponded to a change in the granule size distribution from bimodal to monomodal and a similar change in the distribution of binder. Induction period growth rate tended to be lower for granules of finer particles, but these grew more rapidly during the rapid growth stage and produced larger granules than the coarser primary particles. The liquid-to-solid ( L/ S) ratio had a significant effect on the growth rate during the rapid growth stage but a minor effect on the granule size distribution and binder distribution. Primary particle size had a significant effect on the final average size of granules, the growth rate during the rapid growth stage and the distribution of granule size and binder.

CRANIAL GROWTH OF CAPTIVE BRED BANK VOLES (CLETHRIONOMYS GLAREOLUS)

The cranial growth of C. glareolus was investigated using 444 captive bred individuals, aged from 5 to 680 days. Three growth patterns of skull characters were found: (1) rapid growth in the first decade of age, followed by a very slow change or stabilisation (width of molar M1 and length of maxillary tooth row), (2) long period of flat growth (length of mandibular tooth row and length of mandibular diastema), and (3) long period of initial growth followed by the plateau phase (length of nasalia and length of foramen incisivum). The measurements of skull characters correlated best with body weight, whereas correlations with body length or individual age were less expressed. Out of 20 skull characters tested, the strongest correlation with animal age and body weight was observed in the length of cranial (upper) diastema. Other characters, which correlated with animal age, were the length of nasalia and the length of molar M1. In captive bred individuals, fluctuations of body weight and skull measurements w...

Time Step Sensitivity of Nonlinear Atmospheric Models: Numerical Convergence, Truncation Error Growth, and Ensemble Design

Abstract Computational models based on discrete dynamical equations are a successful way of approaching the problem of predicting or forecasting the future evolution of dynamical systems. For linear and mildly nonlinear models, the solutions of the numerical algorithms on which they are based converge to the analytic solutions of the underlying differential equations for small time steps and grid sizes. In this paper, the authors investigate the time step sensitivity of three nonlinear atmospheric models of different levels of complexity: the Lorenz equations, a quasigeostrophic (QG) model, and a global weather prediction system (NOGAPS). It is illustrated here how, for chaotic systems, numerical convergence cannot be guaranteed forever. The time of decoupling of solutions for different time steps follows a logarithmic rule (as a function of time step) similar for the three models. In regimes that are not fully chaotic, the Lorenz equations are used to illustrate how different time steps may lead to different model climates and even different regimes. A simple model of truncation error growth in chaotic systems is proposed. This model decomposes the error onto its stable and unstable components and reproduces well the short- and medium-term behavior of the QG model truncation error growth, with an initial period of slow growth (a plateau) before the exponential growth phase. Experiments with NOGAPS suggest that truncation error can be a substantial component of total forecast error of the model. Ensemble simulations with NOGAPS show that using different time steps may be a simple and natural way of introducing an important component of model error in ensemble design.

Demographic history of HIV-1 subtypes B and F in Brazil

The reconstruction of the epidemic history of several HIV populations, by using methods that infer the population history from sampled gene sequence data, has revealed important subtype-specific and regional-specific differences in patterns of epidemic growth. Here, we employ Bayesian coalescent-based methods to compare the population history of the HIV-1 subtype B and F1 epidemics in Brazil from non-contemporary env and pol gene sequences. Our results suggest that after the introduction of the subtypes B and F1 into Brazilian population, around mid to late 1960s and late 1970s, respectively, these subtypes experienced an initial period of exponential growth with similar epidemic growth rates (∼0.5–0.6 year −1). Later, the spreading rate of both subtypes seems to have slowed-down since mid to late 1980s. This demographic pattern is very similar to that reported for the subtype B epidemics in high-income countries where HIV was initially transmitted through homosexual intercourse and injecting drug use, as in Brazil; suggesting that the characteristics of transmission networks may be a key determinant of the HIV epidemic growth pattern. It is important to note that most of the subtype B and F1 sequences used in this study come from the Southeast region that has been the most affected by the AIDS epidemic in Brazil, being responsible for around 63% of all AIDS cases reported since the early eighties; but may not represent the demographic trend of the HIV-1 epidemic in other Brazilian regions.

A laboratory study of meteor smoke analogues: Composition, optical properties and growth kinetics

Meteoric smoke forms in the mesosphere from the recondensation of the metallic species and silica produced by meteoric ablation. A photochemical flow reactor was used to generate meteoric smoke mimics using appropriate photolytic precursors of Fe and Si atoms in an excess of oxidant. The following systems were studied: (i) Fe+O 3/O 2, (ii) Fe+O 3/O 2+H 2O, (iii) Fe+Si/SiO+O 3/O 2 and (iv) Si/SiO+O 3/O 2. The resulting nano-particles were captured for imaging by transmission electron microscopy, combined with elemental analysis using X-ray (EDX) and electron energy loss (EELS) techniques. These systems generated particle compositions consistent with: (i) Fe 2O 3 (hematite), (ii) FeOOH (goethite), (iii) Fe 2SiO 4 (fayalite) and (iv) SiO 2 (silica). Electron diffraction revealed that the Fe-containing particles were entirely amorphous, while the SiO 2 particles displayed some degree of crystallinity. The Fe-containing particles formed fractal aggregates with chain-like morphologies, whereas the SiO 2 particles were predominantly spherical and compact in appearance. The optical extinction spectra of the Fe-containing particles were measured from 300 nm< λ<650 nm. Excellent agreement was found with the extinction calculated from Mie theory using the refractive indices for the bulk compounds, and assuming that the fractal aggregates are composed of poly-disperse distributions of constituent particles with radii ranging from ∼5 to 100 nm. These sizes were confirmed from measurements of the particle size distributions and microscopic imaging. Finally, the particle growth kinetics of the Fe-containing systems exhibit unexpectedly rapid agglomerative coagulation. This was modelled by assuming an initial period of coalescent particle growth resulting from diffusional (Brownian) coagulation to form primary particles; further growth of these particles is then dominated by long-range magnetic dipole–dipole interactions, leading to the fractal aggregates observed. The atmospheric implications of this work are then discussed.

Fractal growth modelling of [formula omitted] nanoparticles

The kinetics of iodine oxide aerosol production and growth was studied in an aerosol flow reactor by the photolysis of I 2 in an excess of O 3 , at a temperature of 295 K and a total pressure of 1 atm. The time-resolved evolution of the particle size distribution was fitted using a model which assumes that the initial period of particle growth (in the free molecular flow regime) is dominated by collision-coalescence, maintaining spherical shape and compact structure. This leads to the formation of primary particles of about 3 nm radius, which trigger fractal (agglomerative) growth in the transition regime resulting in particle aggregates characterised by lower mass fractal dimensions ( D f ) in the range 2.2–2.5. Enhancement of the particle pair collision kernels due to competing van der Waals and hydrodynamic forces is treated within the model. The densities of the fractal aggregates are lower than that of the bulk material, recently identified as I 2 O 5 [Saunders, R. W., & Plane, J. M. C. (2005). Formation pathways and composition of iodine oxide ultrafine particles. Environmental Chemistry, 2, 299], as a result of internal void space within the aggregate structures.