Inhomogeneity Correction Research Articles

An efficient level set method for simultaneous intensity inhomogeneity correction and segmentation of MR images

Intensity inhomogeneity (bias field) is a common artefact in magnetic resonance (MR) images, which hinders successful automatic segmentation. In this work, a novel algorithm for simultaneous segmentation and bias field correction is presented. The proposed energy functional allows for explicit regularization of the bias field term, making the model more flexible, which is crucial in presence of strong inhomogeneities. An efficient minimization procedure, attempting to find the global minimum, is applied to the energy functional. The algorithm is evaluated qualitatively and quantitatively using a synthetic example and real MR images of different organs. Comparisons with several state-of-the-art methods demonstrate the superior performance of the proposed technique. Desirable results are obtained even for images with strong and complicated inhomogeneity fields and sparse tissue structures.

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Evaluation of Dose Calculation Algorithms of Isogray Treatment Planning System Using Measurement in Heterogeneous Phantom

Background: Radiotherapy is a high-energy ionizing radiation treatment for some kinds of cancers. Accuracy and the quality of radiotherapy treatment planning systems depend on the type of dose calculation algorithms that are utilized. There are uncertainties in the calculation of dose distribution, especially in a heterogeneous situation. Objectives: This study calculated and compared dose with model-based algorithms (superposition, collapsed cone convolution (CCC) and fast Fourier transform (FFT) and a measure-based algorithm (Clarkson in two modes: heterogeneity active and inactive). Materials and Methods: A heterogeneous phantom was used based on a semi-anthropomorphic phantom CIRS thorax 002 LFC. All of the tests were planned according to IAEA TEC-DOC 1583. All measurements were performed with a 6 MV photon beam of a linear accelerator (ELEKTA Compact) and Farmer ionization chamber. Five methods were utilized to calculate dose and were compared with measurement results as the gold standard. Results: In the homogeneity media all algorithms had good accuracy and dose difference was below 3%, but in the inhomogeneity situation dose difference increased and in some cases did not achieve agreement criteria. The Superposition algorithm overall has minimum deviations in all cases. However in some cases CCC had better accuracy. The Clarkson algorithm had maximum differences, especially when inhomogeneity correction was inactive. Conclusions: Dose calculation algorithms applied in radiotherapy treatment planning systems have different accuracy. Model-based algorithms have a better accuracy over measurement-based algorithms such as Clarkson. In the presence of large inhomogeneity, it is strongly recommended to activate manual inhomogeneity correction.

Liquid-liquid interfacial properties of a symmetrical Lennard-Jones binary mixture

We determine the interfacial properties of a symmetrical binary mixture of equal-sized spherical Lennard-Jones molecules, σ11 = σ22, with the same dispersive energy between like species, ϵ11 = ϵ22, but different dispersive energies between unlike species low enough to induce phase separation. We use the extensions of the improved version of the inhomogeneous long-range corrections of Janec̆ek [J. Phys. Chem. B 110, 6264 (2006)], presented recently by MacDowell and Blas [J. Chem. Phys. 131, 074705 (2009)] and Martínez-Ruiz et al. [J. Chem. Phys. 141, 184701 (2014)], to deal with the interaction energy and microscopic components of the pressure tensor. We perform Monte Carlo simulations in the canonical ensemble to obtain the interfacial properties of the symmetrical mixture with different cut-off distances rc and in combination with the inhomogeneous long-range corrections. The pressure tensor is obtained using the mechanical (virial) and thermodynamic route. The liquid-liquid interfacial tension is also evaluated using three different procedures, the Irving-Kirkwood method, the difference between the macroscopic components of the pressure tensor, and the test-area methodology. This allows to check the validity of the recent extensions presented to deal with the contributions due to long-range corrections for intermolecular energy and pressure tensor in the case of binary mixtures that exhibit liquid-liquid immiscibility. In addition to the pressure tensor and the surface tension, we also obtain density profiles and coexistence densities and compositions as functions of pressure, at a given temperature. According to our results, the main effect of increasing the cut-off distance rc is to sharpen the liquid-liquid interface and to increase the width of the biphasic coexistence region. Particularly interesting is the presence of a relative minimum in the total density profiles of the symmetrical mixture. This minimum is related with a desorption of the molecules at the interface, a direct consequence of a combination of the weak dispersive interactions between unlike species of the symmetrical binary mixture, and the presence of an interfacial region separating the two immiscible liquid phases in coexistence.

Selecting the reference image for registration of CEST series.

To compare different reference images selected for registration among chemical exchange saturation transfer (CEST) series. Five normal volunteers and eight brain tumor patients were studied on a 3 Tesla scanner. Image registration was performed by choosing each of the acquired CEST saturation or unsaturation dynamic images as the reference. CEST images at 3.5 ppm (amide proton transfer, APT) were computed for each motion-corrected data set after main magnetic field inhomogeneity correction. A uniformity index was defined to quantify the efficacy of image registration using different reference images. Joint histograms and the structural similarity index (SSIM) were used to analyze the intrinsic image similarity between various dynamic images. Image registration increased the average uniformity index by 18% if the 3.5 ppm saturated image was selected as the reference image. However, registering to the unsaturated dynamic image reduced the uniformity index by 13% on average. The joint histogram analysis showed that the saturated dynamic images were highly similar (SSIM = 0.89 ± 0.01), and were considerably different from the unsaturated dynamic image (SSIM = 0.58 ± 0.03). The selection of the 3.5 ppm dynamic image as the reference image generated the highest uniformity index for APT imaging though other saturated images were equally suited as reference images.

Technical Note: Relation between dual-energy subtraction of CT images for electron density calibration and virtual monochromatic imaging.

For accurate tissue inhomogeneity correction in radiotherapy treatment planning, the author previously proposed a simple conversion of the energy-subtracted computed tomography (CT) number to an electron density (ΔHU-ρe conversion), which provides a single linear relationship between ΔHU and ρe over a wide ρe range. The purpose of the present study was to reveal the relation between the ΔHU image for ρe calibration and a virtually monochromatic CT image by performing numerical analyses based on the basis material decomposition in dual-energy CT. The author determined the weighting factor, α0, of the ΔHU-ρe conversion through numerical analyses of the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements Report-46 human body tissues using their attenuation coefficients and given ρe values. Another weighting factor, α(E), for synthesizing a virtual monochromatic CT image from high- and low-kV CT images, was also calculated in the energy range of 0.03 < E < 5 MeV, assuming that cortical bone and water were the basis materials. The mass attenuation coefficients for these materials were obtained using the xcom photon cross sections database. The effective x-ray energies used to calculate the attenuation were chosen to imitate a dual-source CT scanner operated at 80-140 and 100-140 kV/Sn. The determined α0 values were 0.455 for 80-140 kV/Sn and 0.743 for 100-140 kV/Sn. These values coincided almost perfectly with the respective maximal points of the calculated α(E) curves located at approximately 1 MeV, in which the photon-matter interaction in human body tissues is exclusively the incoherent (Compton) scattering. The ΔHU image could be regarded substantially as a CT image acquired with monoenergetic 1-MeV photons, which provides a linear relationship between CT numbers and electron densities.

SU‐E‐T‐762: Toward Volume‐Based Independent Dose Verification as Secondary Check

Purpose:Lung SBRT plan has been shifted to volume prescription technique. However, point dose agreement is still verified using independent dose verification at the secondary check. The volume dose verification is more affected by inhomogeneous correction rather than point dose verification currently used as the check. A feasibility study for volume dose verification was conducted in lung SBRT plan.Methods:Six SBRT plans were collected in our institute. Two dose distributions with / without inhomogeneous correction were generated using Adaptive Convolve (AC) in Pinnacle3. Simple MU Analysis (SMU, Triangle Product, Ishikawa, JP) was used as the independent dose verification software program, in which a modified Clarkson‐based algorithm was implemented and radiological path length was computed using CT images independently to the treatment planning system. The agreement in point dose and mean dose between the AC with / without the correction and the SMU were assessed.Results:In the point dose evaluation for the center of the GTV, the difference shows the systematic shift (4.5% ± 1.9 %) in comparison of the AC with the inhomogeneous correction, on the other hands, there was good agreement of 0.2 ± 0.9% between the SMU and the AC without the correction. In the volume evaluation, there were significant differences in mean dose for not only PTV (14.2 ± 5.1 %) but also GTV (8.0 ± 5.1 %) compared to the AC with the correction. Without the correction, the SMU showed good agreement for GTV (1.5 ± 0.9%) as well as PTV (0.9% ± 1.0%).Conclusion:The volume evaluation for secondary check may be possible in homogenous region. However, the volume including the inhomogeneous media would make larger discrepancy. Dose calculation algorithm for independent verification needs to be modified to take into account the inhomogeneous correction.

TU-AB-201-06: Evaluation of Electromagnetically Guided High- Dose Rate Brachytherapy for Ablative Treatment of Lung Metastases

Purpose: The advent of electromagnetic navigation bronchoscopy has enabled minimally invasive access to peripheral lung tumors previously inaccessible by optical bronchoscopes. As an adjunct to Stereotactic Ablative Radiosurgery (SABR), implantation of HDR catheters can provide focal treatments for multiple metastases and sites of retreatments. The authors evaluate a procedure to deliver ablative doses via Electromagnetically-Guided HDR (EMG-HDR) to lung metastases, quantify the resulting dosimetry, and assess its role in the comprehensive treatment of lung cancer. Methods: A retrospective study was conducted on ten patients, who, from 2009 to 2011, received a hypo-fractionated SABR regimen with 6MV VMAT to lesions in various lobes ranging from 1.5 to 20 cc in volume. A CT visible pathway was delineated for EM guided placement of an HDR applicator (catheter) and dwell times were optimized to ensure at least 98% prescription dose coverage of the GTV. Normal tissue doses were calculated using inhomogeneity corrections via a grid-based Boltzmann solver (Acuros_BV_1.5.0). Results: With EMG-HDR, an average of 83% (+/−9% standard deviation) of each patient's GTV received over 200% of the prescription dose, as compared to SABR where the patients received an average maximum dose of 125% (+/−5%). EMG-HDR enabled a 59% (+/−12%) decrease in the aorta maximum dose, a 63% (+/−26%) decrease in the spinal cord max dose, and 57% (+/−23%) and 70% (+/−17%) decreases in the volume of the body receiving over 50% and 25% of the prescription dose, respectively. Conclusion: EMG-HDR enables delivery of higher ablative doses to the GTV, while concurrently reducing surrounding normal tissue doses. The single catheter approach shown here is limited to targets smaller than 20 cc. As such, the technique enables ablation of small lesions and a potentially safe and effective retreatment option in situations where external beam utility is limited by normal tissue constraints.

SU‐E‐T‐48: A Multi‐Institutional Study of Independent Dose Verification for Conventional, SRS and SBRT

Purpose:To show the results of a multi‐institutional study of the independent dose verification for conventional, Stereotactic radiosurgery and body radiotherapy (SRS and SBRT) plans based on the action level of AAPM TG‐114.Methods:This study was performed at 12 institutions in Japan. To eliminate the bias of independent dose verification program (Indp), all of the institutions used the same CT‐based independent dose verification software (Simple MU Analysis, Triangle Products, JP) with the Clarkson‐based algorithm. Eclipse (AAA, PBC), Pinnacle3 (Adaptive Convolve) and Xio (Superposition) were used as treatment planning system (TPS). The confidence limits (CL, Mean±2SD) for 18 sites (head, breast, lung, pelvis, etc.) were evaluated in comparison in dose between the TPS and the Indp.Results:A retrospective analysis of 6352 treatment fields was conducted. The CLs for conventional, SRS and SBRT were 1.0±3.7 %, 2.0±2.5 % and 6.2±4.4 %, respectively. In conventional plans, most of the sites showed within 5 % of TG‐114 action level. However, there were the systematic difference (4.0±4.0 % and 2.5±5.8 % for breast and lung, respectively). In SRS plans, our results showed good agreement compared to the action level. In SBRT plans, the discrepancy between the Indp was variable depending on dose calculation algorithms of TPS.Conclusion:The impact of dose calculation algorithms for the TPS and the Indp affects the action level. It is effective to set the site‐specific tolerances, especially for the site where inhomogeneous correction can affect dose distribution strongly.

SU-E-J-84: Quantitative Dosimetry Assessment of the Impact of Image Artifacts of Metal Implants in Spinal SABR Treatment

Purpose: Metal rods are frequently used to stabilize the spine in patients with metastatic disease. The high Z material causes imaging artifacts in the surrounding tissue in CT scans, which introduces dosimetric uncertainty when inhomogeneity correction is enabled for radiation treatment planning. The purpose of this study is to quantify the dosimetric deviations caused by the imaging artifacts and to evaluate the effectiveness of using Hounsfield units (HU) overwriting to reduce dosimetric uncertainties. Methods: We retrospectively reviewed treatment plans for 4 patients with metal implants who received stereotactic ablative radiation therapy (SABR) for metastatic disease to the spine on Tomotherapy HiArt. For all four patients, the region of imaging artifact surrounding the metal implants was contoured and the pixel HU’s were overwritten to be water equivalent. We then generated adaptive treatment plans for these patients using the MVCT pretreatment set up images and batched beamlets in the original treatment plans. The dosimetry deviation between the adaptive and original plans were compared and quantitatively analyzed. Results: For three out of four patient, the major OAR (spinal cord) dose (0.35cc or 10% according to protocols and fractionation) increased (2.7%, 5.5%, 0%, 3.9%, mean=3.0±2.3%, p=0.04), and the PTV dose (D90 or D95 asmore » per prescription) increased for all four patients ( 2%, 5%, 0.7%, 3.6%, mean=2.8±1.9%, p=0.03) in the adaptive plan with HU overwriting. The average point dose deviation of the Tomotherapy DQA for the same patients was −1.0±1.0%. For plans without HU overwriting, the dose deviation from the treatment plan will increase. Conclusion: The metal implant and the imaging artifacts may cause a significant dosimetric impact on radiation treatment plans for spinal disease. The dose to the PTV and the spinal cord was under-calculated in treatment plans without considering the imaging artifacts. HU overwriting can reduce the dosimetry un-certainty.« less

SU‐E‐T‐390: Evaluation of Heterogeneity Corrections Made by RayStation Treatment Planning

Purpose:To examine the agreement between absorbed doses calculated by RayStation treatment planning algorithm to those measured with gafchromic film and ion chamber when the photon beam is perturbed by attenuation or lateral scatter of lung material.Methods:A gafchromic EBT2 film was placed in the center of a 30×30×20 cm3 solid water phantom with a 5 cm lung slab placed at 10 cm depth. The film was irradiated at SSD = 100 cm with a 6 MV photon beam, 10×10 and 5×5 cm2 field sizes and with the beam parallel to the film and lung slab. A CT was performed to the phantom arrangement for RayStation dose calculation. The films were scanned in an Epson 10000X flatbed scanner and analyzed using the red channel, 16 bits, 76 dpi. PDD curves at the central axis and profiles at dmax were also measured in water using a CC13 (0.13 CC) ion chamber. Measurements and calculation of PDD curves at the central axis and profiles at dmax and 20 cm depth were compared using the criteria suggested by the AAPM Task Group # 53.Results:The PDD curves measured with gafchromic film and those measured in water with ion chamber agree with the ones calculated by RayStation within the uncertainty of the measurements which is within 3%. The passing rate values of the measured and calculated profiles for the 2 field sizes are within 94% for both at dmax and at 20 cm depth.Conclusion:Raystation dose calculation engine models inhomogeneity corrections. Differences between the calculated PDD curves and profiles and those measured with gafchromic film are within the uncertainty of the measurements and inside of the agreement tolerance suggested by TG53. Therefore, RayStation treatment planning has an acceptable algorithm to correct dose delivered by photon beams perturbed by lung tissue.

SU-E-T-297: Dosimetric Assessment of An Air-Filled Balloon Applicator in HDR Vaginal Cuff Brachytherapy Using the Monte Carlo Method

Purpose: As an alternative to cylindrical applicators, air inflated balloon applicators have been introduced into HDR vaginal cuff brachytherapy treatment to achieve sufficient dose to vagina mucosa as well as to spare rectum and bladder. In general, TG43 formulae based treatment planning systems do not take into account tissue inhomogeneity, and air in the balloon applicator can cause higher delivered dose to mucosa than treatment plan reported. We investigated dosimetric effect of air in balloon applicator using the Monte Carlo method. Methods: The thirteen-catheter Capri applicator with a Nucletron Ir-192 seed was modeled for various balloon diameters (2cm to 3.5cm) using the MCNP Monte Carlo code. Ir-192 seed was placed in both central and peripheral catheters to replicate real patient situations. Existence of charged particle equilibrium (CPE) with air balloon was evaluated by comparing kerma and dose at various distances (1mm to 70mm) from surface of air-filled applicator. Also mucosa dose by an air-filled applicator was compared with by a water-filled applicator to evaluate dosimetry accuracy of planning system without tissue inhomogeneity correction. Results: Beyond 1mm from air/tissue interface, the difference between kerma and dose was within 2%. CPE (or transient CPE) condition was deemed existent, and in this region no electron transport was necessary in Monte Carlo simulations. At 1mm or less, the deviation of dose from kerma became more apparent. Increase of dose to mucosa depended on diameter of air balloon. The increment of dose to mucosa was 2.5% and 4.3% on average for 2cm and 3.5cm applicators, respectively. Conclusion: After introduction of air balloon applicator, CPE fails only at the proximity of air/tissue interface. Although dose to mucosa is increased, there is no significant dosimetric difference (<5%) between air and water filled applicators. Tissue inhomogeneity correction is not necessary for air-filled applicators.

SU-E-T-285: Dose Variation at Bone in Small-Animal Irradiation: A Monte Carlo Study Using Monoenergetic Photon Beams

Purpose: The aim of this study is to investigate the variation of bone dose on photon beam energy (keV – MeV) in small-animal irradiation. Dosimetry of homogeneous and inhomogeneous phantoms as per the same mouse computed tomography image set were calculated using the DOSCTP and DOSXYZnrc based on the EGSnrc Monte Carlo code. Methods: Monte Carlo simulations for the homogeneous and inhomogeneous mouse phantom irradiated by a 360 degree photon arc were carried out. Mean doses of the bone tissue in the irradiated volumes were calculated at various photon beam energies, ranging from 50 keV to 1.25 MeV. The effect of bone inhomogeneity was examined through the Inhomogeneous Correction Factor (ICF), a dose ratio of the inhomogeneous to the homogeneous medium. Results: From our Monte Carlo results, higher mean bone dose and ICF were found when using kilovoltage photon beams compared to megavoltage. In beam energies ranging from 50 keV to 200 keV, the bone dose was found maximum at 50 keV, and decreased significantly from 2.6 Gy to 0.55 Gy, when 2 Gy was delivered at the center of the phantom (isocenter). Similarly, the ICF were found decreasing from 4.5 to 1 when the photon beam energy was increased from 50 keV to 200 keV. Both mean bone dose and ICF remained at about 0.5 Gy and 1 from 200 keV to 1.25 MeV with insignificant variation, respectively. Conclusion: It is concluded that to avoid high bone dose in the small-animal irradiation, photon beam energy higher than 200 keV should be used with the ICF close to one, and bone dose comparable to the megavoltage beam where photoelectric effect is not dominant.

SU-D-BRB-07: Lipiodol Impact On Dose Distribution in Liver SBRT After TACE

Purpose: Stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) combining transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) with Lipiodol is expected to improve local control. This study aims to evaluate the impact of Lipiodol on dose distribution by comparing the dosimetric performance of the Acuros XB (AXB) algorithm, anisotropic analytical algorithm (AAA), and Monte Carlo (MC) method using a virtual heterogeneous phantom and a treatment plan for liver SBRT after TACE. Methods: The dose distributions calculated using AAA and AXB algorithm, both in Eclipse (ver. 11; Varian Medical Systems, Palo Alto, CA), and EGSnrc-MC were compared. First, the inhomogeneity correction accuracy of the AXB algorithm and AAA was evaluated by comparing the percent depth dose (PDD) obtained from the algorithms with that from the MC calculations using a virtual inhomogeneity phantom, which included water and Lipiodol. Second, the dose distribution of a liver SBRT patient treatment plan was compared between the calculation algorithms. Results In the virtual phantom, compared with the MC calculations, AAA underestimated the doses just before and in the Lipiodol region by 5.1% and 9.5%, respectively, and overestimated the doses behind the region by 6.0%. Furthermore, compared with the MC calculations, the AXB algorithm underestimated the doses just before and in the Lipiodol region by 4.5% and 10.5%, respectively, and overestimated the doses behind the region by 4.2%. In the SBRT plan, the AAA and AXB algorithm underestimated the maximum doses in the Lipiodol region by 9.0% in comparison with the MC calculations. In clinical cases, the dose enhancement in the Lipiodol region can approximately 10% increases in tumor dose without increase of dose to normal tissue. Conclusion: The MC method demonstrated a larger increase in the dose in the Lipiodol region than the AAA and AXB algorithm. Notably, dose enhancement were observed in the tumor area; this may lead to a clinical benefit.

SU‐E‐T‐50: A Multi‐Institutional Study of Independent Dose Verification Software Program for Lung SBRT

Purpose:The accuracy of dose distribution depends on treatment planning system especially in heterogeneity‐region. The tolerance level (TL) of the secondary check using the independent dose verification may be variable in lung SBRT plans. We conducted a multi‐institutional study to evaluate the tolerance level of lung SBRT plans shown in the AAPM TG114.Methods:Five institutes in Japan participated in this study. All of the institutes used a same independent dose verification software program (Simple MU Analysis: SMU, Triangle Product, Ishikawa, JP), which is Clarkson‐based and CT images were used to compute radiological path length. Analytical Anisotropic Algorithm (AAA), Pencil Beam Convolution with modified Batho‐method (PBC‐B) and Adaptive Convolve (AC) were used for lung SBRT planning. A measurement using an ion‐chamber was performed in a heterogeneous phantom to compare doses from the three different algorithms and the SMU to the measured dose. In addition to it, a retrospective analysis using clinical lung SBRT plans (547 beams from 77 patients) was conducted to evaluate the confidence limit (CL, Average±2SD) in dose between the three algorithms and the SMU.Results:Compared to the measurement, the AAA showed the larger systematic dose error of 2.9±3.2% than PBC‐B and AC. The Clarkson‐based SMU showed larger error of 5.8±3.8%. The CLs for clinical plans were 7.7±6.0 % (AAA), 5.3±3.3 % (AC), 5.7±3.4 % (PBC ‐B), respectively.Conclusion:The TLs from the CLs were evaluated. A Clarkson‐based system shows a large systematic variation because of inhomogeneous correction. The AAA showed a significant variation. Thus, we must consider the difference of inhomogeneous correction as well as the dependence of dose calculation engine.

How age of acquisition influences brain architecture in bilinguals.

In the present study, we explored how Age of Acquisition (AoA) of L2 affected brain structures in bilingual individuals. Thirty-six native English speakers who were bilingual were scanned with high resolution MRI. After MRI signal intensity inhomogeneity correction, we applied both voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and surface-based morphometry (SBM) approaches to the data. VBM analysis was performed using FSL's standard VBM processing pipeline. For the SBM analysis, we utilized a semi-automated sulci delineation procedure, registered the brains to an atlas, and extracted measures of twenty four pre-selected regions of interest. We addressed three questions: (1) Which areas are more susceptible to differences in AoA? (2) How do AoA, proficiency and current level of exposure work together in predicting structural differences in the brain? And (3) What is the direction of the effect of AoA on regional volumetric and surface measures? Both VBM and SBM results suggested that earlier second language exposure was associated with larger volumes in the right parietal cortex. Consistently, SBM showed that the cortical area of the right superior parietal lobule increased as AoA decreased. In contrast, in the right pars orbitalis of the inferior frontal gyrus, AoA, proficiency, and current level of exposure are equally important in accounting for the structural differences. We interpret our results in terms of current theory and research on the effects of L2 learning on brain structures and functions.

A reliable spatially normalized template of the human spinal cord — Applications to automated white matter/gray matter segmentation and tensor-based morphometry (TBM) mapping of gray matter alterations occurring with age

Recently, a T2*-weighted template and probabilistic atlas of the white and gray matter (WM, GM) of the spinal cord (SC) have been reported. Such template can be used as tissue-priors for automated WM/GM segmentation but can also provide a common reference and normalized space for group studies. Here, a new template has been created (AMU40), and accuracy of automatic template-based WM/GM segmentation was quantified. The feasibility of tensor-based morphometry (TBM) for studying voxel-wise morphological differences of SC between young and elderly healthy volunteers was also investigated.Sixty-five healthy subjects were divided into young (n=40, age<40years old, mean age 28±5years old) and elderly (n=25, age>50years old, mean age 57±5years old) groups and scanned at 3T using an axial high-resolution T2*-weighted sequence. Inhomogeneity correction and affine intensity normalization of the SC and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) signal intensities across slices were performed prior to both construction of the AMU40 template and WM/GM template-based segmentation. The segmentation was achieved using non-linear spatial normalization of T2*-w MR images to the AMU40 template. Validation of WM/GM segmentations was performed with a leave-one-out procedure by calculating DICE similarity coefficients between manual and automated WM/GM masks. SC morphological differences between young and elderly healthy volunteers were assessed using the same non-linear spatial normalization of the subjects' MRI to a common template, derivation of the Jacobian determinant maps from the warping fields, and a TBM analysis.Results demonstrated robust WM/GM automated segmentation, with mean DICE values greater than 0.8. Concerning the TBM analysis, an anterior GM atrophy was highlighted in elderly volunteers, demonstrating thereby, for the first time, the feasibility of studying local structural alterations in the SC using tensor-based morphometry. This holds great promise for studies of morphological impairment occurring in several central nervous system pathologies.

Automated extraction and labelling of the arterial tree from whole-body MRA data.

In this work, we present a fully automated algorithm for extraction of the 3D arterial tree and labelling the tree segments from whole-body magnetic resonance angiography (WB-MRA) sequences. The algorithm developed consists of two core parts (i) 3D volume reconstruction from different stations with simultaneous correction of different types of intensity inhomogeneity, and (ii) Extraction of the arterial tree and subsequent labelling of the pruned extracted tree. Extraction of the arterial tree is performed using the probability map of the "contrast" class, which is obtained as one of the results of the inhomogeneity correction scheme. We demonstrate that such approach is more robust than using the difference between the pre- and post-contrast channels traditionally used for this purpose. Labelling the extracted tree is performed by using a combination of graph-based and atlas-based approaches. Validation of our method with respect to the extracted tree was performed on the arterial tree subdivided into 32 segments, 82.4% of which were completely detected, 11.7% partially detected, and 5.9% were missed on a cohort of 35 subjects. With respect to automated labelling accuracy of the 32 segments, various registration strategies were investigated on a training set consisting of 10 scans. Further analysis on the test set consisting of 25 data sets indicates that 69% of the vessel centerline tree in the head and neck region, 80% in the thorax and abdomen region, and 84% in the legs was accurately labelled to the correct vessel segment. These results indicate clinical potential of our approach in enabling fully automated and accurate analysis of the entire arterial tree. This is the first study that not only automatically extracts the WB-MRA arterial tree, but also labels the vessel tree segments.

Field inhomogeneity correction using partial differential phases in magnetic resonance imaging

Correction of an inhomogeneous magnetic field is proposed using partial differential phases in magnetic resonance imaging. Estimation of the inhomogeneous magnetic field from a measured phase is not an easy task due to phase wrapping and chemical-dependent phase shifts. Using the proposed partial differential phase technique, such problems are resolved. The proposed technique uses most of the 3D pixel data regardless of chemical compounds for the estimation of the inhomogeneous magnetic field. A large number of partial difference data compared to the number of expansion terms for the model of inhomogeneous magnetic field provides a very stable estimation, robust to noise. The technique is applicable to in vivo shimming, water-fat imaging, eddy current compensation, and most phase-related measurements and imaging. The efficacy of the proposed technique is demonstrated with in vivo water-fat imaging.

Tissue inhomogeneity corrections in low-kV intra-operative radiotherapy (IORT)

Objective: To investigate the effects of tissue inhomogeneities on dose distributions produced by low-energy X-rays from an IntraBeam device used in intra-operative radiotherapy (IORT). Methods and materials: A 50 kV IntraBeam X-ray device with superficial (Flat and Surface) applicators has been recently commissioned at the Loyola University Medical Center in Maywood, Illinois (USA). For each applicator type, treatment dose parameters, such as, percent depth-dose (PDD) and output factors (OF) were obtained. Calibrated Gafchromic (EBT3) films (dose range, 0 to 4 Gy) were employed to obtain dose distributions in a solid water phantom at various depths (2, 5, 10, and 15 mm). All recommended precautions with respect to film-handling, film-exposure and scanning were observed. The effect of tissue inhomogeneities on dose distributions was examined by placing air-cavities and bone and tissue equivalent materials with different density (ρ), atomic number (Z), and thickness (t=0-4 mm) between the applicator and film detector. All inhomogeneities were cylindrical with a 25 mm diameter. Treatment time was calculated to deliver 1 Gy dose at 5 mm depth in a homogenous phantom. Film results were verified by repeat measurements with a thin-window parallel plate ion-chamber (PTW 34013A) placed in a water tank. Results: For a flat-4 cm applicator, the dose rate at 5 mm depth in solid water was measured to be 0.349 Gy/min. Introduction of a cylindrical air cavity resulted in an increased dose past the heterogeneity. Compared to dose in a homogenous tissue equivalent medium, dose enhancement due to 1, 2, 3, and 4 mm air cavities was found to be 10%, 16%, 24%, and 35% respectively. X-ray attenuation due to a 2 mm thick layer of cortical bone resulted in a significantly large dose decrease (58%) compared to homogenous conditions. Conclusions: IORT dose calculations assume a homogeneous tissue equivalent medium. However, the treatment conditions may involve the presence of various tissue inhomogeneities, thereby compromising delivered dose. We have investigated the effect of different density materials on dose distributions in IORT. The results of this study may be used to estimate and correct IORT dose delivered in the presence of tissue inhomogeneities.