Ingestion Pathway Research Articles

Metabolic adaptability and nutrient scavenging in Toxoplasma gondii: insights from ingestion pathway-deficient mutants.

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular pathogen that infects virtually any nucleated cell in most warm-blooded animals. Infections are asymptomatic in most cases, but people with weakened immunity can experience severe disease. For the parasite to replicate within the host, it must efficiently acquire essential nutrients, especially as it is unable to make several key metabolites. Understanding the mechanisms by which Toxoplasma scavenges nutrients from the host is crucial for identifying potential therapeutic targets. Our study suggests that the ingestion pathway contributes to sustaining parasite metabolites and parasite replication under amino acid-limiting conditions. This work advances our understanding of the metabolic adaptability of Toxoplasma.

Particle-bound mercury in Saharan dust-loaded particulate matter in Cabo Verde.

Particle-bound mercury in Saharan dust-loaded particulate matter in Cabo Verde.

Potential exposure to metals-bound particulate during open burning of different waste materials.

Smoke caused by open waste burning (OWB) contains metal-bound particulates that can harm human health. This study aimed to understand the differences in the exposure of particulate matter 10 and 2.5µm (PM10 and PM2.5) concentrations in several distances and investigated potential health impacts of metal-bound particulates. Observations were made based on laboratory and field studies consisting of multiple open burning practices, PM capture, and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) analysis. Moreover, the potential health risks in terms of respiratory deposition dose (RDD), carcinogenic risk (CR), and non-carcinogenic risks were determined. The results showed that the exposure levels in the distance range of 1 - 5m were not significantly different (0.419 - 0.607mg/m3 for PM10 and 0.289 - 0.399mg/m3 for PM2.5). During the day, RDD values were higher for adults (2.58 - 5.79µg/min), with adults facing greater short-term exposure risk (2.45 - 5.79µg/min) than children (2.22 - 3.90µg/min). It was found that the highest CR from the ingestion pathway was caused by arsenic (As) from textile burning (1.41 × 10-6), and that caused by chromium (Cr) through the inhalation pathway from backyard waste burning (7.43 × 10-9). However, the CR values for both the pathways were below the acceptable threshold. In addition, the hazard index (HI), for both adults and children were less than 1 for all metal concentrations in all types of waste burning. The higher HI value in children indicates that they are most vulnerable to long-term exposure to OWB. Preventive actions to reduce OWB activity are necessary to reduce the adverse health effects.

Driving aspects of microplastic uptake: Influence in the Bentho-Pelagic ecosystem and its associated ecological risks along the coast of Goa, India.

Driving aspects of microplastic uptake: Influence in the Bentho-Pelagic ecosystem and its associated ecological risks along the coast of Goa, India.

Occurrence, Characteristics, and Mixed Reproductive Exposure Risk Assessment of Traditional Phthalates and Their Novel Alternatives in Campus Indoor Dust.

Phthalates (PAEs) constitute the primary components of indoor dust pollutants and significantly impact human reproductive health. However, research on novel alternatives to PAEs and the risk assessment of mixed exposure has remained relatively sparse. In this study, 193 indoor dust samples were collected in 2022 from various campus locations, including classrooms, canteens, dormitories, offices, and laboratories. Forty-four traditional PAEs and their alternatives were identified, with concentrations ranging from 0.44 to 91.5 μg/g. Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and dioctyl terephthalate (DEHTH) were the predominant compounds, with mean concentrations of 86.3 and 59.2 μg/g, respectively. The ingestion pathway was the principal route of exposure, with dormitories identified as the primary exposure sites. The mixed reproductive toxicity equivalent factor (TEFmix) of PAEs and their alternatives was developed using a quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) model in conjunction with machine learning algorithms. The TEFmix was found to be lower than the sum of individual PAEs, potentially due to the antagonistic effects of PAE monomers on reproductive health. Under high-exposure scenarios, the TEFmix of PAEs in canteen dust was determined to be 0.245, surpassing values observed in other environments. Females exhibited a higher risk, with dormitories presenting a greater exposure risk than those in other indoor locations. This study provided essential data to inform regulatory measures aimed at mitigating the impact of PAEs and their alternatives in indoor dust on human reproductive health.

Geochemistry and risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in surface river sediments (Chirchik-Akhangaran basin, Uzbekistan).

The geochemistry of river sediments depends on several factors, namely the nature of exposed lithologies, weathering, different grain-size and sorting due to hydraulic phenomena, and anthropogenic inputs. Potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in river sediments may result in potential health risks due to overexposure when riverfronts are used for recreational activities. In the present study, sediments were collected from 17 sites in the Chirchik-Akhangaran River basin in the Tashkent Province (Uzbekistan, Central Asia) during baseflow conditions. The concentration of PTEs was determined in the < 2mm (bulk) and < 63µm (fine) grain-size fractions. The assessment of contamination using environmental indices highlighted low to moderate contamination for Li, Be, Co, Ni, Sb, V, and Cr in Chirchik and Akhangaran sediments and from moderate to high contamination for Cu, Zn, Mo, Cd, Tl, Pb, and As in some of the Akhangaran sites. The potential ecological risk indices suggest that risk ranges from low to moderate in most stations from the Chirchik and Akhangaran River catchments; high risk is restricted to few Akhangaran sites. Risk assessment carried out for the Chirchik River, where waterfront recreational use is popular, indicates that the non-carcinogenic risk is acceptable for all contaminants and all pathways for an outdoor recreational setting. The cumulative Hazard Index (HI) resulted to be lower than the acceptance threshold (HI < 1) for both children and adults (0.795 and 9.27 × 10-2, respectively). In the case of carcinogenic effects, the risk is unacceptable for As through the ingestion pathway. The calculated screening level for As is 2.86mg/kg.

Assessing carcinogenic effects of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) in indoor public buildings: A study in Isfahan, Iran

Background: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are persistent organic pollutants of significant concern due to their adverse health effects and widespread presence in indoor environments. Understanding the distribution and sources of PCB contamination in indoor settings is critical for effective risk management and mitigation strategies. Methods: Dust samples were collected from 28 locations within public buildings in Isfahan. The concentration of PCBs was determined using an Agilent 7890A gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer. Additionally, the carcinogenic risk (CR) associated with PCB exposure via ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact was assessed for both children and adults. PCBs with six chlorine atoms in their structure were the dominant group, with a mean concentration of 74.42±22.10 ng/g. Results: The CR values were categorized as low for both age groups via ingestion and dermal pathways, ranging between 4.04E-05 and 2.27E-05. Furthermore, all sampling locations were classified as low risk in terms of total CR effects. Conclusion: Inhalation risks from PCB exposure were relatively low; however, concerns persist regarding PCBs acting as vectors for other contaminants, thus amplifying health risks through dermal contact and ingestion. Effective management strategies are essential to mitigate PCB exposures and protect public health in indoor environments.

Estimation of Effects of Filtration and Ventilation on Worker Inhalation Dose from Aerosols Produced during Nuclear Decommissioning Processes.

During the decommissioning of nuclear power plants, radioactive contaminants may be released into the work environment in the form of aerosols, which can expose workers through inhalation, ingestion, and submersion pathways. During dismantlement work, aerosol concentrations may increase due to release from materials. Typical engineering controls to reduce concentrations include air exchange as well as air filtration, which captures aerosols at their source. This work presents a model of radioactive aerosol concentration to estimate the reduction of (a) effluent aerosol concentration into the environment and (b) worker committed effective dose. Controlling the aerosol concentration mitigates the dose that the workers receive. Given that there exists a variety of filtration methods of varying efficiencies and throughputs, a method of estimating dose reduction for a variety of work scenarios is desirable. This work models the time-evolution of radionuclide aerosol concentration as a function of dismantlement work parameters such as work time, aerosol source rate, air exchange, and air filtration. The committed effective dose to a worker as well as the environmental radionuclide aerosol emissions are estimated over a typical 10-h work shift.

Assessing toxicological risk of nanoplastics contaminants in food and feed from ingestion pathway to human diseases

The extensive use of plastic without an effective management system is linked to significant environmental pollution issues. The fragmentation of various types of plastic waste leads to the formation of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs). NPs, measuring less than 0.1 μm pose a latent danger to the human food chain caused by the ability to traverse biological membranes than MPs, potentially leading to various chronic diseases. The widespread distribution of NPs across diverse environmental matrices and their subsequent infiltration into food and feed chains precipitates various emerging health concerns. NPs contaminate food production systems and leach from plastic packaging, infiltrating organisms at various trophic levels. Seafood, processed foods, and drinking water serve as vectors for absorption and accumulation in human tissues. The pervasive contamination pathway poses substantial risks to human health through multiple exposure routes, primarily ingestion. It can lead to cytotoxicity, inflammation, genotoxicity, and apoptosis. This review summarizes the implications of NPs exposure that triggers various diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), kidney dysfunction, liver disease, heart problems, brain disorders, reproductive issues, and cancer. Currently, no established method exists to treat NPs that humans may have already ingested. Hence, it is urgent to mitigate the harmful effects of NPs through the development and implementation of innovative, efficient, and sustainable environmental decontamination strategies. This discussion highlights several advanced remediation techniques that can effectively reduce the toxicity of NPs in environmental systems, thus mitigating their associated risks.

Ecological and Human Health Risk Assessment of Water, Sediment, Soil and Irrigated Vegetables’ Heavy Metals to Pankshin Community in Plateau State, Nigeria

Heavy metal contamination from parent material and/or anthropogenic activities is a major environmental health challenge and is potentially dangerous because of bioaccumulation through the food chain. The main objectives of this study are to estimate heavy metals pollution levels in water, sediment, soils and vegetables and also to estimate the dietary intakes and health risks of heavy metals to the consumers of the vegetables in Pankshin communities. Heavy metals in vegetable samples were analyzed by Inductively coupled plasma (ICP), water and the available fractions by Microwave Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (MP-AES) while sediment and soil by Energy Dispersive X – Ray Florescence (ED-XRF). The soil and sediment were slightly acidic, none saline, low organic and carbon organic matter. Most of the concentrations of the metals in water were higher than the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Nigerian Agency for Food, Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) permissive levels. The heavy metals concentrations in sediment are mostly above threshold effect level (TEL) allowable limits. The study recoded high concentrations of metals (except As and Cd) increasing from surface soil to 21 – 30cm depth. The contamination factor (CF), degree of contamination (CD), pollution load indices (PLI) of all the soils and sediment indicated a state of deterioration with respect to the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) 2002 background. Ecological risks Factors, Enrichment factors and Geo Accumulation indices indicated moderate risks to biodiversity from soil contamination with metals. The ingestion pathway recoded the highest non-carcinogenic toxicity for soil and sediment in children while dermal and inhalation for the adults. The cancer risk was ranked in the order of As &gt; Cr &gt; Pb&gt; Cd&gt;Ni. The concentrations of most metals in the vegetables samples were within the FAO/WHO limits in edible parts. The HI ranges for adults and children through vegetable consumption were below one indicating no potential health risk consuming the vegetables. As and Cr were major contributors of contracting cancer from the vegetables. The obtained data can be a basis for implementing scientific and environmental pollution control measures in the irrigational areas.

Assessing inhalation intake of microplastics using MPPD model

Increasing evidence of the presence of small microplastics in human tissues necessitates research on their intake routes and internalization. Among two major routes of exposure to microplastics (MPs), inhalation pathways are less investigated than ingestion pathways. In this study, quantitative estimation of microplastics intake and internalization was conducted using the multi-path particle dosimetry (MPPD) model by US Environmental Protection Agency assuming three representative particle size distributions (i.e., Power law, unimodal, and biomodal distributions) of cylindrical MPs within the aerodynamic diameter between 0.1 and 10 μm at the aspect ratio of 3:1. Assuming the default atmospheric concentration of MPs at 0.1 μg m–3, the estimated mass deposition in human lungs ranged 19.1–49.9 μg. Although sensitivity analysis revealed that estimated mass deposition of MPs in human lungs were not much different among three particle size distributions, deposition in the pulmonary region was strongly affected by the type of size distributions. Because of suspected health symptoms of MPs in the pulmonary region and the slower clearance in this region, it is of urgent needs to characterize MP size distribution in the inhalable particle size range (0.1–10 μm) and to analyze MPs in the same size range in human respiratory tissues.

Advancing Human Health Risk Assessment Through a Stochastic Methodology for Mobile Source Air Toxics

Mobile source air toxics (MSATs) are major contributors to urban air pollution, especially near high-traffic roadways, where populations face elevated pollutant exposures. Traditional human health risk assessments, based on deterministic methods, often overlook variability in exposure and the vulnerabilities of sensitive subpopulations. This study introduces and applies a new stochastic modeling approach, utilizing Monte Carlo simulations to evaluate cumulative cancer risks from MSATs exposure through inhalation and ingestion pathways. This method captures variability in exposure scenarios, providing detailed health risk assessments, particularly for vulnerable groups such as children and the elderly. This approach was demonstrated in a case study conducted in Saint Paul, Minnesota, using 2019 traffic data. Deterministic models estimated cumulative cancer risks for adults at 6.24E-02 (unitless lifetime cancer risk), while stochastic modeling revealed a broader range, with the 95th percentile reaching 4.98E-02. The 95th percentile, used in regulatory evaluations, identifies high-risk scenarios overlooked by deterministic methods. This research advances the understanding of MSATs exposure risks by integrating spatiotemporal dynamics, identifying high-risk zones and vulnerable subpopulations, and supporting resource allocation for targeted pollution control measures. Future applications of this methodology include expanding stochastic modeling to evaluate ecological risks from mobile emissions.

Assessment of Human Health Risk from Chromium in Drinking Water in the Northeast of Iran Using the Monte Carlo Simulation

Background: Despite technological advancements, heavy metal concentrations in water sources remain above the safe limits set by regulatory standards worldwide. Contaminated drinking water containing heavy metals poses significant public health concerns globally. Objectives: This study aims to examine the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks for adults and children exposed to chromium (Cr) in drinking water through ingestion and dermal pathways. Methods: Health risk assessments were conducted on 60 samples collected from ten active wells and ten stations within the drinking water distribution network sections in Fariman, Iran. The Superfund risk assessment model from the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was employed to evaluate health risks. Crystal Ball software was used to perform Monte Carlo simulations and sensitivity analyses to reduce uncertainties and assess the impact of each variable on the risk assessment results. Results: The hazard quotient (HQ) values for Cr from ingestion pathways exceeded the safety level threshold (HQ &gt; 1) for both adults and children in all sampling sites, while for dermal exposure, the HQ was lower than the safe limit for both populations. The mean cancer risk (CR) values for children and adults via ingestion were 4.58 × 10-4 and 7.9 × 10-5, respectively. However, the CR associated with dermal exposure for both groups was deemed negligible. Conclusions: The health risk of Cr exposure from drinking water exceeds the acceptable safety level for children and adults. This indicates that drinking water is the primary source of Cr exposure for residents in Fariman. It is essential to implement more control measures and suitable purification systems to reduce Cr levels in the water supply in Fariman.

Concentrations and human health risks attributed to potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in water resources in China: Systematic review and meta-analysis.

Concentrations and human health risks attributed to potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in water resources in China: Systematic review and meta-analysis.

A systematic review on concentration of residential indoor air metals and health risk assessment

This review evaluates metal concentrations in indoor air within residential buildings, focusing on original research published in English from 2010 to 2022. We conducted a comprehensive literature search across Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and SpringerLink, identifying 34 relevant studies measuring metal concentrations in various residential environments. Data extraction revealed significant regional variations, with urban homes exhibiting higher metal concentrations compared to rural and industrial areas. Chromium (Cr) levels in urban regions reached 116.00±170.00 mg/kg, compared to 63.40±34.80 mg/kg in rural areas and 30.90±16.90 mg/kg in industrial regions. Nickel (Ni) concentrations were also higher in urban homes at 86.10±126.00 mg/kg, versus 27.60±9.08 mg/kg in rural and 20.40±7.65 mg/kg in industrial settings. The living room showed the highest metal concentrations, with lead (Pb) at 170.00±NA mg/kg and nickel (Ni) at 174.00±144.00 mg/ kg, significantly higher than in bedrooms and kitchens (p&lt;0.05). Seasonal variations indicated elevated warm season metal concentrations, with iron (Fe) measured at 11,200 ± 9830 mg/kg. Health risk assessments highlighted a total cancer risk (CR) of 1.59 × 10⁻³ in industrial areas, exceeding acceptable limits (10⁻5 to 10⁻⁶). The ingestion pathway was the primary route for both cancer and non-cancer risks, with copper (Cu) posing the highest potential cancer risk across all regions. These findings emphasize the need for monitoring and regulation of indoor metal concentrations, particularly in industrial areas.

Risk of Chemical Pollution in Olifants River Basin, South Africa: Human Health Implications

Chemical pollution in freshwater ecosystems poses a significant environmental threat, often hindering access to safe drinking water for human populations. The Olifants River Basin in South Africa is particularly vulnerable due to escalating mining and agricultural activities, and domestic waste discharged into the rivers. In this study, the risk posed to humans by exposure to potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in water from two rivers, the Blyde and Steelpoort, was assessed. Water samples were collected from upstream, midstream, and downstream locations of these rivers, and the concentrations of eight PTEs (Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Iron, Manganese, Nickel, Lead, and Zinc) were determined using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrophotometry. Furthermore, two pathways of exposure, direct ingestion and dermal absorption, were used to evaluate their potential impacts on human health. The findings indicate that direct ingestion poses a greater risk to human health compared to dermal absorption. While PTEs may pose little non-carcinogenic risk for adults, higher risk was observed in children. This is an indication that children are at higher risk using water from the rivers, sometimes without any form of treatment. When carcinogenic risks (CRs) were computed for both adults and children for As, Cr, Ni, and Pb levels, the CR values were above the threshold limit, except for Pb, indicating a potential carcinogenic risk. This study underscores the need for regular monitoring of chemical pollution, and the implementation of effective mitigation strategies to safeguard both river ecosystems and human health, including proper treatment of water for domestic and agricultural purposes.

Distribution of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban soil across major cities of Bihar, India: seasonal variation, source apportionment, and health risk assessment.

This study investigates the distribution of sixteen priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), various sources of PAHs, and their probable cancer-causing risks in the soil samples collected from urban cities in Bihar, India. During the winter season, the ∑16 PAH concentration was dominant and ranged from 979.36 to 5149.37 ngg-1 with a mean value of 2684.79 ngg-1, while for the summer season, it ranged from 690.06 to 4539.55 ngg-1 with a mean value of 2194.31 ngg-1. The (4-ring) PAH compounds were the major contributors, accounting for 40% and 37% in the winter and summer seasons, respectively followed by (5- and 6-ring) PAHs at 30% and 32%, and (2- and 3-ring) PAHs at 29% and 30% in the respective seasons. Carcinogenic PAHs constituted ~ 50% of the ∑16 PAHs, with mean values of 1353.97 ngg-1 and 1098.09 ngg-1 for the winter and summer seasons, respectively. Positive matrix factorization (PMF) confirmed the dominance of fossil fuel burning and biomass burning as a primary source in the urban soil of Bihar. Total mean benzo(a)pyrene equivalent (BaPeq) values for the ∑16 PAHs were 312.04 ngg-1 for the winter season and 262.83 ngg-1 for the summer season. These values were higher in current study sites as compared with other studies. However, the concentration range fell within the limit set by the Canadian soil quality standard (700.00 ngg-1) and exceeded the limit of the Dutch target value (32.96 ngg-1). The Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCRs) from dermal and ingestion pathways were approximately 104 to 105 times lower than the inhalation pathway, suggesting greater risk. The study revealed higher mean cancer risk values for children (1.16 × 10-5) and adults (1.03 × 10-5) in the winter season, falling within the unacceptable range (10-6 and 10-4) of carcinogenic risk that might lead to human health risk in the study sites.

Comprehensive Assessment of the Health Risk of Cadmium Exposure from Soil-wheat System in Wheat Fields in Northern China

Accurately assessing the health risks of cadmium （Cd） exposure in the soil-wheat system is of great importance for the formulation of regional health risk prevention measures. Based on regional large-scale survey and Monte Carlo simulation methods, a case study on the health risk of Cd exposure in a soil-wheat system in a wheat production area of North China Plain was conducted by constructing a comprehensive health risk assessment （CHRA） model. The results showed that 73% of the soil samples in the study area exceeded the screening value of Cd for farmland soil （GB 15618-2018） and 57.8% of the wheat samples exceeded the national standard （GB 2762-2017） for Cd. The hand-mouth ingestion pathway was the main route of soil Cd exposure for adults and children in the region, and under this pathway, 34.7% of adults and 57.4% of children had a cancer risk higher than the safe threshold recommended by USEPA （1E-06）. The comprehensive non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks of cadmium exposure from the soil-wheat system in the region were higher than the safe domain values for both adults and children, with the probabilities of 26.4% and 100% for adults and 62.5% and 100% for children, respectively. The overall trends of the comprehensive risks showed that children had higher risks than those of adults. The combined application of the comprehensive health risk assessment model and the uncertainty random simulation method helps to improve the accuracy of risk decision-making.

Spatio-temporal distribution, source apportionment, ecological and human health risks assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Sombreiro River Estuary, Niger Delta, Nigeria

ABSTRACT The spatio-temporal distribution, source apportionment, and risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) were investigated in the Sombreiro River Estuary, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Water, sediment and oysters were obtained from the estuary and analyzed for 16 priority PAHs using gas chromatograph coupled with mass selective detector after extraction. The levels of the ∑16-PAHs in the water, sediment and oyster ranged from 25-10079 µg/L, 495-12811 µg/kg and 489-10823 µg/kg respectively for all locations and seasons. The results showed significant spatio-temporal variations in PAHs concentrations in all the matrices. The ecological risk assessment revealed high risk posed by the PAHs level to the estuarine ecosystem. The health risk indicated unacceptable carcinogenic risk to human via ingestion of oysters. Besides, for water and sediments, both ingestion and dermal pathways indicated unacceptable cancer risk. Source apportionment suggested that the PAHs in the estuary were from both pyrogenic and petrogenic sources.

Assessment of heavy metal concentrations, environmental risks and human health implications in marine sediments along the coastal ecosystems of the Republic of Congo.

The aim of this study is to assess the level of heavy metals (HMs) in surface sediments along the coastal estuaries of the Republic of Congo. A variety of approaches were employed, integrating elemental analysis (Atomique Absorption Spectroscopy), environmental, ecological, health risk assessment, and source identification techniques to evaluate the distribution, origin, environmental, ecological and health risks of potentially toxic element (PTE) contamination in sediments. The ascending mean concentration (mg/kg) of Cd (0.4) < Cu (18.6) < Pb (28.8) < Zn (62.1) < Mn (107) < Mg (569.6) complied with the local background, except for Cd and Pb. However, notable variations across sampling points and sites were observed, with a strong relationship between metals and organic matter. The comparing of PTEs with USEPA international standards and sediment toxicity guidelines showed compliance. The assessment of environmental risk parameters, based on the calculation of the geo-accumulation index, concentration factor and pollutant load indices showed low pollution of sediments. The ecological risk assessment, on the other hand, revealed a low level of pollution of biota and a low toxicity risk of ecosystems related to Cd and Pb and then to Cu in some sites. Regarding human health risk assessment, related to the PTEs, the cancerogenic effect indices were calculated for Cd and Pb through ingestion and inhalation pathways, and the non-cancerogenic effect indices were calculated for all HMs through ingestion, inhalation, and cutaneous contact routes, for children and adults, and showed that the results comply with the international standards set by USEPA, ranging from 10-4 to 10-6 and less than 1, respectively, where children were more sensitive and vulnerable than adults to the effects of the PTEs. Ultimately, this study revealed sediment lithology, anthropogenic activities, and mixed origins of HMs, with a large contribution from industrial activities. However, no significant impacts are discernible in the study area. In addition to the importance of this study, it forms part of the region database and could serve as a reference for future monitoring studies, since no data are available in th Congolese coastal environment.