Information Systems Research Community Research Articles

Theory in North American Information Systems Research: A Culturomic Analysis

Since its inception, North American information systems (IS) research has relied on a broad and varied collection of theories. The core of this theoretical landscape is an important determinant of the IS research community’s identity, and, as such, researchers have discussed it extensively in recent years. Nevertheless, we know few concrete facts about the composition, consistency, or evolution of this theoretical core over time. Using a set of 318 theories in conjunction with n-gram analyses, we address these issues empirically by computationally analyzing the complete text of every research paper published in three leading North American IS journals over a 24-year period. In examining these 2,215 papers and more than 3.54 billion n-gram records, we identify the theories that constitute the overall core of North American IS research and provide insights into the evolution of that core. We further identify and quantify the nature of theoretical pluralism in North American IS research and examine the evolution of the theoretical density of IS research studies over time. Finally, our results shed light on the patterns of theory co-occurrence in North American IS research studies and demonstrate how such information can facilitate increasingly imperative efforts aimed at theory consolidation and generalization.

Theory in North American Information Systems Research: A Culturomic Analysis

Since its inception, North American information systems (IS) research has relied on a broad and varied collection of theories. The core of this theoretical landscape is an important determinant of the IS research community’s identity, and, as such, researchers have discussed it extensively in recent years. Nevertheless, we know few concrete facts about the composition, consistency, or evolution of this theoretical core over time. Using a set of 318 theories in conjunction with n-gram analyses, we address these issues empirically by computationally analyzing the complete text of every research paper published in three leading North American IS journals over a 24-year period. In examining these 2,215 papers and more than 3.54 billion n-gram records, we identify the theories that constitute the overall core of North American IS research and provide insights into the evolution of that core. We further identify and quantify the nature of theoretical pluralism in North American IS research and examine the evolution of the theoretical density of IS research studies over time. Finally, our results shed light on the patterns of theory co-occurrence in North American IS research studies and demonstrate how such information can facilitate increasingly imperative efforts aimed at theory consolidation and generalization.

Going back to basics in design science: from the information technology artifact to the information systems artifact

AbstractThe concept of the ‘information technology (IT) artifact’ plays a central role in the information systems (IS) research community's discourse on design science. We pose the alternative concept of the ‘IS artifact’, unpacking what has been called the IT artifact into a separate ‘information artifact’, ‘technology artifact’ and ‘social artifact’. Technology artifacts (such as hardware and software), information artifacts (such as a message) and social artifacts (such as a charitable act) are different kinds of artifacts that together interact in order to form the IS artifact. We illustrate the knowledge value of the IS artifact concept with material from three cases. The result is to restore the idea that the study of design in IS needs to attend to the design of the entire IS artifact, not just the IT artifact. This result encourages an expansion in the use of design science research methodology to study broader kinds of artifacts.

소셜네트워크사이트 사용자의 가치체계 연구

This study aims to develop a rich understanding of user goals in user-empowering information technologies which have been dominating part in the information systems environment. A particular focus is on users' goals in a social network site (SNS) which is a typical example of user-empowering technologies. Users conduct various activities in order to achieve diverse goals in SNS. Thus, investigating what goals users pursue in SNS will give insights into understanding the users. We employed the laddering interview technique and means-end chain approach. Interviews of 50 Facebook users were analyzed to produce a hierarchical goal map showing users' goal structure. The map contains 18 goals, including self-reflection, psychological stability, belongingness, improving productivity, and amusement as ultimate goals in SNS. In the map, there are varied routes from activities to ultimate goals in SNS; that is, a complex assembly consisting of activities and goals. The findings call the information systems research community to have more interests in diverse goals and values users seek with technologies.

Web-based information systems success: testing the antecedents of online customer satisfaction

The measurement of information systems (IS) success have been widely investigated throughout the IS research community. However, the traditional success models need refinements to meet the specificities of the web-based IS. To go beyond this limitation, this study provides an empirical test of re-specified models adapted to the internet context and based on DeLone and McLean’s IS success research. Thus, we tested two models using covariance-based structural equation modelling, as implemented in EQS 6.1, to determine the impact of three web-based IS success factors on online customer satisfaction. The results indicate that web system quality, web content quality and web service quality have a direct effect on online customer satisfaction. We found also that web service quality is a central concept and it mediates partially the role of both system quality and content quality.

Discursive Formations and Trans-Disciplinary Agendas: A Response to Walsham

W e would like to congratulate the Editors of JIT for suggesting to Geoff Walsham that he initiate a discussion in the pages of their journal on ‘Whither the IS field?’, also to Geoff for responding with a thoughtful and challenging paper (Walsham, 2012). The impact of his paper is reflected in the number of responses received and published in JIT. Some of these have argued that asking the question is itself an indication of the discipline’s malaise, part of an endless cycle of navel gazing, an activity not appropriate for a mature discipline. We disagree. All disciplines must be seen as ‘discursive formations,’ with those involved engaging in discussions regarding the directions in which things are being taken; encompassing practical, professional, and academic manifestations: Hence, this contribution to the discussion and ensuing responses. Walsham poses the question and challenge – ‘Are we making a better world with ICTs?’ The responses from Adam (2012), March and Neiderman (2012), Davidson (2012), Baskerville (2012), and to some extent Schultze (2012), assume that this refers specifically to the information systems (IS) discipline in some sense; which is understandable given that Walsham’s article is published in JIT. The ‘we’ in this case can be assumed to refer to the IS research community. In the 1950s, one of the popular TV series of the day was ‘The Lone Ranger,’ the eponymous hero was a masked man aided by his ‘trusty side-kick’ Tonto, who would now be described as a Native American. Dating from this time there is a joke that the Lone Ranger and Tonto see a horde of Indian braves bearing down on them in full battle fury. ‘Looks like we are in trouble, Tonto,’ says the Lone Ranger to his companion. ‘What do you mean “we,” white man?’ Tonto responds. So, in similar fashion, the present authors raise the question ‘What “we” Professor Walsham?’ In other words, why assume that the challenges facing IS academics and their ilk are only to be taken up within a fairly narrowly conceived view of the IS academic discipline? Walsham offers the very apposite example of ICT4D (ICT for Development) in the context of his paper, although somewhat confusingly he refers to it as a ‘subfield’ of IS; later using terms such as multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary. In fact, ICT4D exemplifies what Griselda Pollock has termed the trans-disciplinary; defined as trying ‘to hold on to both the specificity of particular ways of thinking and knowing that define disciplines, while creating the space of their productive encounter so that a different kind of knowledge emerges in the act of intersection and traverse of varied fields through which a shared concept might travel’ (Pollock, 2007). In this sense ICT4D exemplifies a key site for such encounters. Indeed, Shirin Madon in her study of E-governance in India demonstrates the problems which arise when ICT4D is regarded as a ‘subfield of IS’ or ICT in a narrow technical sense; leading to systems failures resulting from a lack of awareness of aspects such as the underlying concerns of Indian villagers, political structures, and cultural mores (Madon, 2009). Taking this perspective and using Walsham’s example of ICT4D, the term ‘we’ can and indeed should be seen as potentially encompassing a wide range of skills, interests, specializations, and disciplines brought together by those concerned with a relatively well-understood field which involves looking at the ways in which technological developments around ICTs can be brought to bear on issues around development. This is a far more complex picture, but as Richard Feynman noted it is better to

Betwixt and Between? Bringing Information Systems and Accounting Systems Research Together

I n 2008, the Research and Publications Committee of the Information Systems Section of the American Accounting Association decided to sponsor a special issue of the Journal of Information Systems (JIS) entitled ‘‘Reviews of Information Systems Research.’’ The objective of the special issue is to ‘‘publish papers that review a stream of research in information systems (IS) broadly defined.’’ The Committee intended that submissions would review and integrate the IS (information systems) and AIS (accounting information systems) literatures and suggest future research directions in both disciplines. The special issue followed a previous valiant and groundbreaking effort in IS/AIS research integration for the IS section by Professors Vicky Arnold and Steve Sutton (Arnold and Sutton 2002). As editor of this special issue, I took a somewhat different approach to the task than is normal. First, rather than a regular call for papers, I requested researchers to submit extended abstracts. The objectives of this approach were to ensure that the scope of the proposed article was concomitant with the objective of the special issue and to identify any potential overlaps in subject matter. In this process, I was able to negotiate the amalgamation of several writing teams. I also ensured that where there was commonality in subject matter, the writing teams were introduced to each other and worked to manage the writing process. Second, I had clear views on how the papers should be structured. As an author of one of the chapters in the earlier monograph for the IS section, I was impressed with the systematic approach Dr. Arnold took to ensuring a common approach in the structure of the contributions and the discipline exercised in ensuring that the goals of the monograph were achieved. It is simpler to achieve a common approach in a monograph than it is in separate papers in JIS. My ambition was, then, to strongly suggest directions to authors but not to mandate a single approach. As a consumer of many literature reviews, I realize how easy it is to maroon readers in a Sargasso Sea, not knowing how to navigate their way. Readers need clear navigational markers and a sense of direction. Third, I saw the review process as a mutual exercise among writing teams, reviewers, and myself as editor. Given the scope of this exercise, I deliberately took a more active editorial role than is normal. These objectives probably added somewhat to the time taken for publication but did, I believe, improve the quality of the papers.

An analysis of the AIS basket of top journals

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to analyze the types of research published in the Association for Information Systems (AIS) basket of top journals.Design/methodology/approachThis paper uses bibliographic analysis to analyze all the articles that were published in the AIS basket of top journals over a ten‐year period, from 1998 to 2007. Articles were classified based on their paradigmatic and methodological approach.FindingsAlthough there is a common perception within the information systems (IS) research community that European IS research is mostly qualitative and interpretive, the bibliographic analysis reveals that the two European IS journals are not significantly different from their US counterparts. All six journals in the AIS basket are remarkably similar in terms of the types of research published.Originality/valueThis article is one of the first to provide a comprehensive overview of the types of research published within the AIS basket of top journals. It provides a picture of how the two European IS journals differ from their US counterparts.

Research Commentary—The Digital Transformation of Healthcare: Current Status and the Road Ahead

As the United States expends extraordinary efforts toward the digitization of its health-care system, and as policy makers across the globe look to information technology (IT) as a means of making health-care systems safer, more affordable, and more accessible, a rare and remarkable opportunity has emerged for the information systems research community to leverage its in-depth knowledge to both advance theory and influence practice and policy. Although health IT (HIT) has tremendous potential to improve quality and reduce costs in healthcare, significant challenges need to be overcome to fully realize this potential. In this commentary, we survey the landscape of existing studies on HIT to provide an overview of the current status of HIT research. We then identify three major areas that warrant further research: (1) HIT design, implementation, and meaningful use; (2) measurement and quantification of HIT payoff and impact; and (3) extending the traditional realm of HIT. We discuss specific research questions in each domain and suggest appropriate methods to approach them. We encourage information systems scholars to become active participants in the global discourse on health-care transformation through IT.

Designing data governance

Introduction Organizations are becoming increasingly serious about the notion of "data as an asset" as they face increasing pressure for reporting a "single version of the truth." In a 2006 survey of 359 North American organizations that had deployed business intelligence and analytic systems, a program for the governance of data was reported to be one of the five success "practices" for deriving business value from data assets. In light of the opportunities to leverage data assets as well ensure legislative compliance to mandates such as the Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) Act and Basel II, data governance has also recently been given significant prominence in practitioners' conferences, such as TDWI (The Data Warehousing Institute) World Conference and DAMA (Data Management Association) International Symposium. The objective of this article is to provide an overall framework for data governance that can be used by researchers to focus on important data governance issues, and by practitioners to develop an effective data governance approach, strategy and design. Designing data governance requires stepping back from day-to-day decision making and focusing on identifying the fundamental decisions that need to be made and who should be making them. Based on Weill and Ross, we also differentiate between governance and management as follows: • Governance refers to what decisions must be made to ensure effective management and use of IT ( decision domains ) and who makes the decisions ( locus of accountability for decision-making ). • Management involves making and implementing decisions. For example, governance includes establishing who in the organization holds decision rights for determining standards for data quality. Management involves determining the actual metrics employed for data quality. Here, we focus on the former. Corporate governance has been defined as a set of relationships between a company's management, its board, its shareholders and other stakeholders that provide a structure for determining organizational objectives and monitoring performance, thereby ensuring that corporate objectives are attained. Considering the synergy between macroeconomic and structural policies, corporate governance is a key element in not only improving economic efficiency and growth, but also enhancing corporate confidence. A framework for linking corporate and IT governance (see Figure 1) has been proposed by Weill and Ross. Unlike these authors, however, we differentiate between IT assets and information assets: IT assets refers to technologies (computers, communication and databases) that help support the automation of well-defined tasks, while information assets (or data) are defined as facts having value or potential value that are documented. Note that in the context of this article, we do not differentiate between data and information. Next, we use the Weill and Ross framework for IT governance as a starting point for our own framework for data governance. We then propose a set of five data decision domains, why they are important, and guidelines for what governance is needed for each decision domain. By operationalizing the locus of accountability of decision making (the "who") for each decision domain, we create a data governance matrix, which can be used by practitioners to design their data governance. The insights presented here have been informed by field research, and address an area that is of growing interest to the information systems (IS) research and practice community.

Research perspectives on innovation through information technology management in a networked world

The role of IT in organizations has evolved from the execution of back-office transaction processing to enabling strategic-level decisions. The rapid growth of new types of IT such as wireless communications, mobile commerce, inter-organizational systems, and Web 2.0 technologies (such as social networking sites) has enabled firms to develop new types of disruptive business models that transcend organizational boundaries. Firms can tap software development expertise and leverage these resources across a global network, using collaboration tools to connect employees with customers, suppliers, and business partners. Firms can also tap into the expertise of their extended value network, comprised of their partners, suppliers, and customers, to solve problems creatively that benefit the entire corporate ecosystem. At the same time, technology evolution has given rise to new challenges that frustrate both researchers and practitioners. While there is widespread recognition of the tremendous benefits IT can bring to firms, there is also a fear that in an increasingly volatile and unstable world, IT can sow the seeds of rigidity that inadvertently lock firms into an outdated and increasingly ineffective business strategy. Accordingly, the challenge facing firms that are trying to remain at the head of their respective industries is one of using IT to be innovative while remaining flexible in the face of an unpredictable future. While prior research has explored the role of IT in terms of its business impact within organizations, little work has been done to explore IT’s impact in the presence of network effects in an increasingly networked world. In this special issue of Information Technology and Management, we have brought together five papers that reflect the theme of IT-enabled innovation and its impact in a networked world. Two of these papers were first presented at the Tenth INFORMS Conference on Information Systems and Technology (CIST) held in San Francisco in November 2005. We also invited other authors whose work resonates with the theme of this special issue to submit their papers to be considered for possible publication. In all, we invited authors of six papers to consider having their work competitively reviewed for possible publication in the special issue. Our approach involved developmental reviewing which entailed working with authors to improve the overall quality of their submissions through constructive, yet challenging reviews. We also provided authors with the option of submitting papers that were derivative works of their presentations at INFORMS CIST. Most papers underwent two rounds of review; all papers were diligently and extensively edited to ensure a uniform level of quality. We offer these papers to the information systems research community with the hope that readers will benefit from coverage of these issues, as well as to provide a platform to deepen the research dialogue in this emerging research domain. This special issue begins with a theme piece, by Robert Kauffman of Arizona State University and Ajay Kumar of the Government of Kerala, India, titled ‘‘Network effects and embedded options: Decision-making under uncertainty for network technology investments.’’ The analysis of network effects in technology-based networks continues to I. R. Bardhan (&) The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA e-mail: bardhan@utdallas.edu

Beyond Development

Open source software has rapidly become a popular area of study within the information systems research community. Most of the research conducted so far has focused on the phenomenon of open source software development, rather than use. We argue for the importance of studying open source software use and propose a framework to guide research in this area. The framework describes four main areas of investigation: the creation of OSS user communities, their characteristics, their contributions and how they change. For each area of the framework, we suggest several research questions that deserve attention.

Method Effects in IS Survey Research: An Assessment and Recommendations

Issues involving method effects are routinely taught to PhD students in Information Systems (IS). Unfortunately, the results of an assessment of a population of 128 survey-based studies published in three top IS journals over a seven-year period (1999-2005) reveal that relatively little attention is being paid to method bias and that the threat of serious method bias is great in many of the published studies. For instance, even the best-understood variety of method bias— common source bias—is found to have gone unnoted in over one-third of the papers that used a single respondent for all construct measures for reasons other than necessity. This study was motivated by studies in other areas of the social sciences which have resulted in calls for areas such as IS to conduct empirical assessments of the frequency of the various forms of method bias. Here, the myriad sources of method bias are reviewed and methods for minimizing or eliminating method effects, both in the design of a study and in the subsequent analysis of the data, are discussed. Data on the frequency of appearance of a wide variety of potential sources of method bias are provided and conclusions are drawn. A series of recommendations is made concerning creating greater awareness of method bias on the part of the IS research community and greater use of method bias evaluation criteria in the screening reviews of papers that are done by IS journals.

Environmental Management Information Systems (EMIS) for Sustainable Development: A Conceptual Overview

Environmental management information systems (EMIS) is defined as ‘organizational-technical systems for systematically obtaining, processing, and making available relevant environmental information available in companies’. Such systems evolved out of a growing need to manage environmental information in response to internal and external pressures such as regulations, consumers, stockholders, and changes in the business environments. While over the past decade EMIS have proliferated in the corporate landscape, these systems have received little attention within the information systems research community as whole. The objective of this paper is to serve as a tutorial providing a conceptual overview of EMIS, highlighting organizational and technical issues, as well as research opportunities. In this paper we suggest that there are significant and relatively untapped research synergies existing between information systems and environmental management for sustainable development at the organizational and technical levels.

Information systems for multinational enterprises—some factors at work in their design and implementation

Information systems for multinational companies (MNCs), referred to as international information systems (IIS), have been a problem area for many years, yet have failed to attract more than token attention from the academic information systems research community. This study applies a grounded theory method to establish a first theoretical framework dealing with the structure of IIS and the dynamics of their development and implementation. The substantive theory is based on extensive, long-term work with three MNCs and covers four key areas: (a) the dealings between the actors concerned with an IIS take place in a force field; (b) the force field is reflected in a generic two-dimensional architecture an IIS, which always has a ‘core’ of systems used by all (or many) of the regions and ‘local’ systems, different at every regional site; (c) the balance of functionality between the ‘core’ and the ‘local’ parts of an IIS follows the degree to which the operations of the MNC require synchronous access to data and processing within the IIS. (d) The interactions of IT and users in the force field follow a cyclical, self-reinforcing dialectic such that an enforced consensus process is required in order to boost acceptance and to limit the probability that continuing rejection leads to catastrophic failure. The limitations of the theory are discussed and directions for future research are given.

The Neglected Continent of IS Research: A Research Agenda for Sub-Saharan Africa

Research with a focus on Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), a major region within the world’s second largest continent, is almost non-existent in mainstream information systems research. Although infrastructures for information and communication technology (ICT) are well established in the more developed and industrialized parts of the world, the same is not true for developing countries. Research on developing countries has been rare in mainstream IS and, even where existent, has often overlooked the particular situation of SSA, home to 33 of the world’s 48 least-developed countries. Ironically, it is such parts of the world that can stand to gain the most from the promise of ICT with applications that would help the socioeconomic development of this region. In this study, we present the need for focused research on the ICT development and application for SSA. The information systems research community has a unique and valuable perspective to bring to the challenges this region faces in developing its ICT infrastructure, hence extending research and practice in ICT diffusion and policy. We present here a research agenda for studying the adoption, development, and application of ICT in SSA. In particular, teledensity, telemedicine, online education, and e-commerce present important areas for research, with implications for research, practice, and teaching.

Towards a distinctive body of knowledge for Information Systems experts: coding ISD process knowledge in two IS journals

Abstract. This paper introduces the idea of coding a practically relevant body of knowledge (BoK) in Information Systems (IS) that could have major benefits for the field. In its main part, the paper focuses on the question if and how an underlying body of action‐oriented knowledge for IS experts could be distilled from the IS research literature. For this purpose the paper identifies five knowledge areas as the most important parts for an IS expert's BoK. Two of these are claimed as distinct areas of competence for IS experts: IS application knowledge and IS development (ISD) process knowledge. The paper focuses particularly on ISD process knowledge because it allows the organizing of practically relevant IS knowledge in an action‐oriented way. The paper presents some evidence for the claim that a considerable body of practically relevant IS process knowledge might, indeed, exist, but also notes that it is highly dispersed in the IS literature. It then argues that the IS research community should take stock of this knowledge and organize it in an action‐oriented way. Based on results from prior work it proposes a four‐level hierarchical coding scheme for this purpose. In order to test the idea of coding action‐oriented knowledge for IS experts, the paper reports the results of a coded literature analysis of ISD research articles published from 1996 to 2000 in two leading IS journals – Information Systems Journal and MIS Quarterly. The results suggest that ISD approaches form a useful framework for organizing practically relevant IS knowledge.

A paradigmatic and methodological examination of information systems research from 1991 to 2001

Abstract. The field of information systems (IS) has evolved for more than three decades. Although many schools of thought have emerged and even become well established, few historical analyses of research paradigms and methodologies have been undertaken. One of the rare exceptions is Orlikowski & Baroudi (1991). Yet, the IS research community has evolved substantially since 1991 in many aspects. A variety of journal outlets have emerged and become well established. More attention has been paid to paradigmatic and methodological issues. Political and professional contexts have also changed noticeably. Therefore, it should be an opportune time for the field to ask: ‘What changes are manifested in journal publications?’‘Is the field making progress regarding pluralism in IS research?’‘How will the field's publications practices change in the future?’ The purpose of this paper is to investigate these questions and, in turn, reflect on the paradigmatic and methodological progress made since 1991. We examined 1893 articles published in eight major IS publication outlets between 1991 and 2001. Our findings suggest that the long‐term endeavours of interpretivist researchers might need to continue because the paradigmatic progress appears somewhat inconsequential; positivist research still dominates 81% of published empirical research. In particular, US journals, as opposed to European journals, tend to be more positivist, quantitative, cross‐sectional and survey oriented. With respect to research design, survey research is still the most widely used method (41%), although case studies have gained substantial recognition (36%). Further, the increase of qualitative research (30%), empirical studies (61%) and longitudinal cases (33%) at the expense of laboratory experiments (18%) might suggest that IS researchers have become more interested in obtaining scientific knowledge in real world settings. In summary, we suggest that the field has been dominated by the positivist paradigm, despite calls to the contrary. Indeed, if the field was to truly embrace pluralism, it would have to find ways to fundamentally change the publication practices of the journal system, including the current tenure and promotion system, which pose considerable obstacles for the acceptance of alternative paradigms.

Dealing with Plagiarism in the Information Systems Research Community: A Look at Factors That Drive Plagiarism and Ways to Address Them

Imagine yourself spending years conducting a research project and having it published as an article in a refereed journal, only to see a plagiarized copy of the article later published in another journal. Then imagine yourself being left to fight for your rights alone, and eventually finding out that it would be very difficult to hold the plagiarist accountable for what he or she did. The recent decision by the Association of Information Systems to create a standing committee on member misconduct suggests that while this type of situation may sound outrageous, it is likely to become uncomfortably frequent in the information systems research community if proper measures are not taken by a community-backed organization. In this article, we discuss factors that can drive plagiarism, as well as potential measures to prevent it. Our goal is to discuss alternative ways in which plagiarism can be prevented and dealt with when it arises. We hope to start a debate that provides the basis on which broader mechanisms to deal with plagiarism can be established, which we envision as being associated with and complementary to the committee created by the Association for Information Systems.

Reengineering IS Research and Its Intellectual Infrastructure for the Electronic Economy

The emerging electronic economy is bringing with it rapid advances in open networks and information technology (IT) capabilities, increasing global complexity and interdependence, and increasingly short business cycle times. Many enterprises are reengineering the way they carry out their business to take advantage of these new conditions. In this article, we contend that it is also time for information systems (IS) academics to fundamentally rethink the IS research process and the intellectual infrastructure that enables it in light of these new conditions. We first examine why the current IS research process needs to be changed. We then systematically analyze needed change along 6 dimensions. The change potentials are used to propose an IS research paradigm that is based on interactive knowledge repositories and collaborative electronic networks. We propose a new intellectual infrastructure that is based on a new type of IT-enabled electronic space for the research community, which we term a cybrarium. A cybrarium is focused not only on the storage and dissemination but also on the synthesis of knowledge generated in the research community. We articulate the basic distinctions between electronic Web journals and cybrariums and show how a cybrarium leads to a fundamentally changed research process. We contend that such a redefined research process and its underlying intellectual infrastructure will enable the IS research community to make the transition to a large-scale global collaborative alliance that is faster, more forward looking, and cumulative.