The paper discusses the peculiarities of serving sentences in places of detention for women who have committed crimes. Based on a semi-structured in-depth interview, the authors have described the women’s sense of self in prisons. Today it is improper to discuss issues related to female crime or even to the closed community of convicted women. The authors made an attempt to reproduce the women's sense of self in the social environment of a closed social system, and to analyze the patterns of behavior and social conditions that determine them. Summarizing the characteristic traits of this uncommon social group, the authors described everyday life of women serving sentences, their social motivation and attitudes. As a result of the research, it was concluded that the social portrait of a woman serving a prison sentence depends on the informal status of a correctional facility, on the social status and system of values acquired before conviction, and on the self-motivation.

Using panel data on the age group 50–70 in 15 European countries, we analyze the effects of providing informal care to parents, parents-in-law, stepparents, and grandparents on employment status and work hours. We account for fixed individual effects and test for endogeneity of caregiving using moments exploiting standard instruments (e.g., parental death) as well as higher-order moment conditions (Lewbel instruments). Specification tests suggest that informal care provision and daily caregiving can be treated as exogenous variables. We find a significant and negative effect of daily caregiving on employment status and work hours. This effect is particularly strong for women. On the other hand, providing care at a weekly (or less than weekly) frequency does not significantly affect paid work. We do not find evidence of heterogeneous effects of caregiving on paid work across European regions.

Firm informality is pervasive throughout the developing world, Bangladesh being no exception. The informal status of many firms substantially reduces the tax basis and therefore impacts the provision of public goods. The literature on encouraging formalisation has predominantly focused on reducing the direct costs of formalisation and has found negligible impacts of such policies. In this paper, we focus on a stick intervention, which to the best of our knowledge is the first one in a developing country setting that deals with the most direct and dominant form of informality, that is registration with the tax authority with a direct link to the country’s potential revenue base and thus public goods provision. We implement an experiment in which randomly selected firms are visited by tax representatives who deliver an official letter from the Bangladesh National Tax Authority stating that the firm is not registered and the consequential punishment if the firm fails to register. We find that the intervention increases the rate of registration among treated firms, while firms located in the same market but not treated do not seem to respond significantly. We also find that only larger revenue firms at baseline respond to the threat and register. Our findings have at least two important policy implications: i) the enforcement angle, which could be an important tool to encourage formalisation; and ii) targeting of government resources for formalisation to high-end informal firms. The effects are generally small in levels and this leaves open the question of why many firms still do not register.

Research of inmate social order is a once-vibrant area that receded just as American incarceration rates climbed and the country's carceral contexts dramatically changed. This study reengages inmate society with an abductive mixed methods investigation of informal status within a contemporary men's prison unit. The authors collect narrative and social network data from 133 male inmates housed in a unit of a Pennsylvania medium-security prison. Analyses of inmate narratives suggest that unit "old heads" provide collective goods in the form of mentoring and role modeling that foster a positive and stable peer environment. This hypothesis is then tested with Exponential Random Graph Models (ERGMs) of peer nomination data. The ERGM results complement the qualitative analysis and suggest that older inmates and those who have been on the unit longer are perceived by their peers as powerful and influential. Both analytical strategies point to the maturity of aging and the acquisition of local knowledge as important for attaining informal status in the unit. In sum, this mixed methods case study extends theoretical insights of classic prison ethnographies, adds quantifiable results capable of future replication, and points to a growing population of older inmates as important for contemporary prison social organization.

Taking into account the peculiarities of the market of social and environmental services of forests as a new ecological and economic system of the forest sector of the Ukrainian economy, its institutional equilibrium should be understood as a state of the institutional environment in which there is no significant contradiction between informal and formal institutions.\n\nThe degree of correspondence between formal and informal institutions determines the amount of expenditure to eliminate possible contradictions, that is, the possible dynamics of transaction costs, and, accordingly, determines both the effectiveness of institutional provision and the effectiveness of the economic system as a whole.\n\nThe most typical situation of institutional disequilibrium in the market of social and ecological forest services is that when the introduction of new formal institutions, that is, the development of the state of the institutional environment in the position of institutional equilibrium is met with strong resistance from the informal. The economic conditions for development of such situation to the state of institutional equilibrium are such when the economic benefits of introducing new formal norms exceed institutional transactions. The strategy to achieve institutional equilibrium is the gradual evolutionary adaptation of informal institutions in existing informal constraints.\n\nAnother situation of institutional disequilibrium can be generated by the fact that formal institutions do not change when informal institutions change. Economic conditions for development of such situation to the state of institutional equilibrium are those when the price of the risk of penalties for certain informal shadow rules for the exploitation of social and ecological resources of the forest exceeds the benefits. The strategy to achieve institutional balance is in introducing of effective coordination institutions in the institutional environment.\n\nA state of institutional disequilibrium is possible, when the acquisition of institutional equilibrium occurs through the adequate development of formal and informal institutions. The economic conditions for the implementation of such process are the conformity of the economic benefits that such transformation gives and the costs of providing informal formal status rules. The strategy for implementing such process should be to choose economically viable alternatives.\n\nMore theoretically, a state is possible when a certain institutional equilibrium is established between formal and informal institutions, that is, for some time, formal and informal institutions do not change. The economic condition for such provision is that institutional transactions will require more expenses than those benefits that can receive economic agents from institutional development. This situation requires a stabilization strategy, which consists in mutual compromises in resolving issues when concluding and implementing contracts.

Existing research highlights a lack of organizational basis for collective action in nondemocratic regimes. This study reevaluates this view by examining the distinct roles played by different organizations (embedded in distinct state-society relations) in different stages of collective action (occurrence and success) in rural China. With both quantitative and qualitative data, the authors study two types of organizations: (1) informal lineage groups and (2) semiautonomous civic associations, exemplified by seniors associations. The results demonstrate that lineage groups serve as mobilizing structures for collective resistance but face limited success given their informal status and weak vertical linkages with the state. By contrast, seniors associations, which maintain close relations with authorities while conserving a high degree of autonomy, act as a genuine intermediaries between the government and aggrieved citizens to suppress collective resistance. When collective action emerges, the associations can build on their legitimacy and vertical linkages to facilitate its success.

The author attempts to define the most relevant formats of civil- military relationships. In order to do it, the author refers to the experience from the USA, Western Europe, Russia and China. Classical Western system of civil-military relationships can be found in the USA and Western Europe and characterized by the strict separation of an army from politics and vice versa. This leads to the situation, when an army has no influence on the spheres of civic power, while also weakening the link between politics and strategy. The author claims that the western approach to the regulation of civilmilitary relationships cannot be implemented outside of the West. Thus, although Russian political system is characterized as a system with weak political institutes, the Russian model demonstrates the ability of state to control military forces. In China, where political elite dominates an army, the system of civil-military relationships is also tacit. Many aspects of the Chinese system with the communist party`s control of an army has much in common with the Soviet experience. However, it does not reduce the significant unique characters of the Chinese system. Thus, the image of warrior in the Confucian culture never found such a great level of popularity, which was relevant for the Christian Western culture. The efficiency of the civil control of army can not be compared, according to some uniform criteria. Such systems and mechanisms in a range of states are not defined in a normative way. In order to assess the informal status of an army in a society, we have to consider such an indirect aspect as the ways of the organization of the military high command system. The author concludes by stating that there is no mechanisms and systems of civil-military relationships, which can be implemented universally. All of them are determined by the country`s history and cannot be understand outside the political context. Besides, all of the considered models have both: dvantages and disadvantages.

Many researchers have tested whether protected areas save tropical forest, but generally focus on parks and reserves, management units that have internationally recognized standing and clear objectives. Buffer zones have received considerably less attention because of their ambiguous rules and often informal status. Although buffer zones are frequently dismissed as ineffective, they warrant attention given the need for landscape-level approaches to conservation and their prevalence around the world-in Peru, buffer zones cover >10% of the country. This study examines the effectiveness of buffer zones in the Peruvian Amazon to (a) prevent deforestation and (b) limit the extent of mining concessions. We employ covariate matching to determine the impact of 13 buffer zones on deforestation and mining concessions from 2007 to 2012. Despite variation between sites, these 13 buffer zones have prevented ~320km(2) of forest loss within their borders during the study period and ~1739km(2) of mining concessions, an outcome associated with the special approval process for granting formal concessions in these areas. However, a closer look at the buffer zone around the Tambopata National Reserve reveals the difficulties of controlling illegal and informal activities. According to interviews with NGO employees, government officials, and community leaders, enforcement of conservation is limited by uncertain institutional responsibilities, inadequate budgets, and corruption, although formal and community-based efforts to block illicit mining are on the rise. Landscape-level conservation not only requires clear legal protocol for addressing large-scale, formal extractive activities, but there must also be strategies and coordination to combat illegal activities.

In this symposium, we aim to shed more light on the relationship between leadership and employee voice-that is, employees’ discretionary communication of ideas, suggestions, and concerns. Despite an increasing number of studies looking at how leaders affect voice behavior, a more nuanced understanding of the antecedent, mediating, and boundary conditions in the link between leadership and employee voice is needed. We bring together five empirical papers that (1) outline antecedent conditions of why some leaders solicit voice while others do not (i.e., informal status and employee mobility), (2) specify the necessary leader behaviors with a focus on communication (e.g., collective language) and its mediators, (3) point to boundary conditions in the link between leadership and voice (e.g., when leader liking impedes voice). We draw on a diverse set of studies that provide insight across different field (e.g., health care, R&D teams) and experimental settings. Prof. Elizabeth Morrison, a pioneer in the study of employee voice, will serve as the discussant to lead an interactive group discussion and outline a future research agenda to advance our understanding of voice and its meaning for organizational effectiveness. How Leader Tactics Shape Front-line Staff Voice and Creativity Presenter: Yuna S.H. Lee; Yale U. Presenter: Paul Cleary; Yale U. Presenter: Ingrid M. Nembhard; Yale U. We Can Do It! How Leader Language Affects Voice Behavior in Multi-Professional Action Teams Presenter: Mona Weiss; New York U. Presenter: Michaela Kolbe; ETH Zurich Presenter: Gudela Grote; ETH Zurich Presenter: Donat Spahn; U. Hospital Zurich Presenter: Bastian Grande; U. Hospital Zurich Leaders' Communication of Psychological Standing and Men's Participation in Gender Initiatives Presenter: Elad Netanel Sherf; New York U. Leader Language and Voice: Confident and Positive Speech Boosts Admiration but Stifles Voice Presenter: Jeffrey P. Thomas; New York U. Presenter: Frances J. Milliken; New York U. Presenter: Joe Magee; New York U. Closer They Come Less They're Heard: Employee Upward Mobility and Managerial Solicitation of Voice Presenter: Insiya Hussain; U. of Maryland R.H. Smith School of Business Presenter: Marko Pitesa; U. of Maryland R.H. Smith School of Business Presenter: Srinivas Ekkirala; XLRI-Xavier School of Management Presenter: Subrahmaniam Tangirala; U. of Maryland

Ever since the series and corresponding epochs of the Cenozoic began to be defined over 180 years ago, the Earth science community has recognized bi- and tripartite lower/early, middle, and upper/late divisions of these units. As chronostratigraphy became more precise, these divisions assumed an essential role in the integration of the continuous deep-sea successions where the tools for worldwide correlation were developed, and the historic but disjunct sequences on land in which the stages/ages of the time scale were defined. Rather than being discarded as too vague, the essential value of these subdivisions has been tacitly recognized by describing them in terms of the newly recognized global stages, allowing their boundaries to be identified by the GSSPs (Global Stratotype Section and Point) of the lowest component stage. In this way, and without noticeable controversy, the modern Cenozoic literature treats the lower, middle and upper divisions of its series as elements within the chronostratigraphic hierarchy, i.e., as de facto subseries. Their status in the hierarchy has nonetheless been questioned recently by several members of the ICS (International Commission of Stratigraphy) Bureau on the basis that subseries, as such, have not been explicitly defined by ratified GSSPs. Accordingly, this rank has been omitted from versions of the ICC (International Chronostratigraphic Chart), a product of the ICS. Such omission fails to consider that subseries (and by inference subepochs) are valuable in circumstances where individual stages are inappropriate or often not applicable, e.g., in such disciplines as seismic stratigraphy and climatostratigraphy. The status of subseries in the Cenozoic Erathem is presently under discussion, and there exists within the Subcommissions on Paleogene and Neogene Stratigraphy of the ICS the view that such divisions should have informal status (i.e., non IUGS-ratified subseries/subepochs). This would seemingly contradict the primary goal of the ICS, which since 1986 has focused on establishing a functional common language for all whoworkwith geological time, by making the widely used concepts of subseries and subepochs open to misunderstanding. It also begs the question, as to why should something that consists of GSSP-defined units, and which is in turn a component of higher units in the chronostratigraphic hierarchy, not be considered a formal chronostratigraphic unit in its own right? The reality is that whether formal or informal, the subseries/subepochs of the Cenozoic will continue to be broadly used. Therefore, the interest of the ICS and the Earth science community is best served by formally recognizing them in the ICC hierarchy. This will clarify the problem of inconsistent capitalization of the terms lower, early, middle, upper and late where these are in fact part of a formal unit name and not just a modifier for an indefinite interval, and it will satisfy the broad consensus of the profession, as evidenced during a recent open meeting of the ICS during the 2nd International Congress on Stratigraphy in Graz in 2015.

This article examines workplace learning in health care organisations, particularly focusing on the forming of occupational identities of health care assistants in Sweden. The specific aim is to deepen the understanding of health care assistants’ learning of occupational identities in daily health care practices and the potentials for developing their occupational identities. The article focuses on two interrelated concepts: workplace learning and occupational identity. It is based on case studies of four different health care wards within two clinics at two hospitals in Sweden. The results show that health care assistants’ learning is related to their participation in daily work where the ways of organising work, as well as the social interaction and relationship with registered nurses and physicians are crucial. Previous life and work experiences are also of high importance for their motivation to learn in both formal settings and in their daily work. The identity of the health care assistant are reproduced and governed by routineson the one hand, and flexible in both adapting to other groups, urgent situations or to other needs at the ward on the other. From the results four contradictions are found as potentials for developing occupational identities: formal versus informal learning, adaptive versus developmental learning, formal versus informal legitimacy and weak status versus strong identity. One conclusion is that they adapt to other groups, are practice oriented and learn behind the curtains. These are aspects of their history as a group which is evident in the individual adaption to a hierarchical system of professions.

The intra-group structures and dynamics of group processes in diverse work groups have been examined in both the faultlines and status literature. Although researchers have called for an integration of these two literatures, extant research in these two areas is still isolated from each other. We integrate theories and research on faultlines and informal status to develop a typology of group diversity configurations. Our typology uncovers the patterns in which demographic alignment and social value alignments of individual characteristics interact to determine the intra-group structural properties in diverse work groups. Founded on this typology, we further discuss the effects of each type of group configuration on information elaboration.

Excess sedentary time predicts negative health outcomes independent of physical activity. The present investigation examined informal caregiving duties and transportation-related factors as potential correlates of sedentary behavior in older adults. Average daily sedentary time was measured via accelerometer in adults ages 66 years and older (N = 861). Caregiving variables included dog ownership and informal family caregiving status. Transportation variables included driver status, walking distance to public transit, and reported presence of pedestrians and bicyclists in one's neighborhood. In multivariate models, owning a dog and being a driver were associated with less sedentary time (p ≤ .01). Educational status and geographic region modified the association between dog ownership and sedentary time, and age modified the association between driver status and sedentary time. This study identified that older adult dog owners and drivers were less sedentary. Both factors may create opportunities for older adults to get out of their homes.

The emergence of disliking relations depends on how adolescents perceive the relative informal status of their peers. This phenomenon is examined on a longitudinal sample using dynamic network analysis (585 students across 16 classes in five schools). As hypothesized, individuals dislike those who they look down on (disdain), and conform to others by disliking those who they perceive as being looked down on by their peers (conformity). The inconsistency between status perceptions also leads to disliking, when individuals do not look up to those who they perceive to be admired by peers (frustration). Adolescents are not more likely to dislike those who they look up to (admiration). The results demonstrate the role of status perceptions on disliking tie formation.

Small Firms' Formalization: The Stick Treatment

Abstract Street vending was a common feature in many towns in early modern Europe. However, peddlers and hawkers often operated outside the official framework, lacking permission from governments and guilds. The impact of their informal status has hitherto not featured very extensively in historical studies. This article assesses the impact of policing of street vendors by looking at familiar source materials in a new way. Rather than solely focusing on those people who were ultimately punished, this article investigates the full process of policing and prosecution of street traders in eighteenth-century Dutch towns. It exposes that apart from those receiving a formal punishment, many more traders could suffer from policing activities, and that particular groups of street vendors were more vulnerable than others due to the specific dynamics of local power relations. As such, this article provides new insights into policing and social control, while also offering wider lessons for our understanding of the relationship between the formal and informal economy in pre-industrial Europe.

Objectives. This cross-sectional study assesses resource use and costs in different states of prostate cancer (PCa) in a real-life setting. Costs were estimated as incremental costs due to cancer for a six-month period and they included direct medical costs, productivity costs and costs of informal care.Methods. Resource use and cost data, irrespective of who the payer was, were retrieved from the registries for 611 PCa patients in the Helsinki area in Finland. In addition, patients answered background questions concerning informal care, work capacity and educational status. Patients were divided into four mutually exclusive groups based on disease state and time from diagnosis: primary (local disease, first six months after diagnosis; n = 47), rehabilitation (local disease, 0.5–1.5 years after diagnosis or recurrence; n = 158), remission (local disease, more than 1.5 years after diagnosis; n = 317) and metastatic (after detection of metastases; n = 89).Results. Costs differed markedly between the states of disease. Mean direct health care costs for the six-month periods were: primary treatment state €2750, rehabilitation state €1143, remission state €760 and metastatic state €7423. Productivity costs were also highest (€4277) in the metastatic state. Overall, the average share of indirect costs was around one third of the total costs. However, when including informal care, their combined share of the total costs increased to around half or more.Conclusions. The results provided state-specific estimates of the direct health care and indirect costs of PCa in Finland. The treatment of metastatic disease is significantly more costly than treatment of early stage PCa. Although direct medical costs were higher compared to productivity costs, they should be taken into consideration when evaluating the costs of PCa.

O Distrito Federal e em particular a cidade de Brasília constitui um mercado em plena expansão para produtos orgânicos e agroecológicos. O artigo desenvolve uma caracterização dessas modalidades de organização dos agricultores familiares para a comercialização de produtos orgânicos e agroecológicos no DF A metodologia tem associado uma análise de documentos e estatísticas e entrevistas semi-diretivas dos diversos atores das duas principais cadeias de produtos orgânicos e agroecológicos no Distrito Federal (produtores das feiras, organizações de produtores orgânicos e agroecológicos, supermercados, técnicos dos serviços de assistência técnica e dos órgãos públicos, etc.). Os produtores familiares têm conseguido progressivamente investir o circuito da venda direita e das feiras agroecológicas, mediante modalidades de coordenação e de organização específicas e, de certo modo, inovadoras. Os resultados indicam que os agricultores combinam vários estatutos e instituições formais e informais, mobilizando novas formas de ajuda mutua e de aprendizagem coletiva.

The article examines the FATF specific approach to the problem of terrorism financing. The FATF essence, content of the activity and influence levers are also analyzed within the article. It is shown that the FATF has reviewed the problem of terrorism financing in the broadest perspective, having engaged simultaneously and consistently mechanisms for combating money laundering and terrorism financing. The Task Force has greatly contributed to building of the world counter-terrorism financing system through forming the legal and institutional basis as well as through interaction with all the possible participants and actors of world politics in this area. Moreover, the FATF has succeeded in geographical expansion of the FATF influence from the original 16 to187 jurisdictions by promotion of FATF-style regional bodies establishment. Particular attention is drawn to the unique features of the FATF Recommendations in comparison with the earlier issued sources of international law, which define the international counter-terrorism financing regime. The author believes that one of the advantages of the FATF as an institute within the counter-terrorism financing system among others is the informal status of the FATF, which provides its flexibility and high ability to respond quickly and in a timely manner to evolving nature of money laundering and terrorism financing as well as emerging threats.

Scale, urban risk and adaptation capacity in neighborhoods of Latin American cities