Inflammatory Activation Of Microglia Research Articles

Quantitative systems pharmacology model of α-synuclein pathology in Parkinson's disease-like mouse for investigation of passive immunotherapy mechanisms.

The main pathophysiological hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD) is the accumulation of aggregated alpha-synuclein (αSyn). Microglial activation is an early event in PD and may play a key role in pathological αSyn aggregation and transmission, as well as in clearance of αSyn and immunotherapy efficacy. Our aim was to investigate how different proposed mechanisms of anti-αSyn immunotherapy may contribute to pathology reduction in various PD-like mouse models. Our mechanistic model of PD pathology in mouse includes αSyn production, aggregation, degradation and distribution in neurons, secretion into interstitial fluid, internalization, and subsequent clearance by neurons and microglia. It describes the influence of neuroinflammation on PD pathogenesis and dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Multiple data from mouse PD models were used for calibration and validation. Simulations of anti-αSyn passive immunotherapy adequately reproduce preclinical data and suggest that (1) immunotherapy is efficient in the reduction of aggregated αSyn in various models of PD-like pathology; (2) prevention of aSyn spread only does not reduce the pathology; (3) a decrease in microglial inflammatory activation and aSyn aggregation may be alternative therapy approaches in PD-like pathology.

Role of TREM1 in the sevoflurane‐induced inflammatory activation of microglia in vitro

AbstractPerioperative neurocognitive disorders (PNDs) are one of the most common complications in perioperative patients, and neuroinflammatory reaction mediated by microglia plays a key role in their formation, but the underlying mechanism remains unknown. Given that the triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 (TREM1) is a key regulator of inflammation, this study aimed to observe the role of TREM1 on the sevoflurane‐induced inflammatory activation in microglia. BV2 microglia were subjected to varying sevoflurane concentrations and durations to assess their viability using CCK8 and the expression of TREM1, iNOS, and ARG using enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assays. Additionally, TREM1 knockdown lentivirus was employed to examine its impacts on microglia response to sevoflurane and altered expression of inflammatory markers, IL‐1β, TNF‐α, TGF‐β, IL‐10, iNOS, and ARG, as detected using qRT‐PCR and immunofluorescence for INOS/Iba‐1 and ARG/Iba‐1. Our findings underscore the potent inflammatory activation induced by prolonged, high‐concentration sevoflurane exposure on microglia. We highlight the potential role of TREM1 as a modulator of microglial polarization and a potential target for the treatment and prevention of sevoflurane‐induced PNDs.

Exploring the Biomarkers and Potential Mechanisms of Botulinum Toxin Type A in the Treatment of Microglial Inflammatory Activation through P2X7 Receptors based on Transcriptome Sequencing.

This study aims to explore the potential mechanism by which Botulinum toxin type A (BoNT/ A) inhibits microglial inflammatory activation through P2X7 receptors (P2X7R). BoNT/A is a promising analgesic drug, and previous studies have established that it alleviates Neuropathic Pain (NP) by inhibiting microglial inflammatory activation. This study examined the biomarkers and potential mechanisms by which BoNT/A relieves neuropathic pain by mediating microglial P2X7R and analyzing transcriptome sequencing data from mouse BV-2 microglial cells. The P2X7R agonist Bz-ATP was used to induce microglial inflammatory activation, whilst RNAseq technology was used to explore the biomarkers and potential mechanisms through which BoNT/A suppresses microglial inflammation. RNA sequencing was performed on three BV-2 cell samples treated with a P2X7R specific activator (Bz-ATP) and three BV-2 cell samples pre-treated with BoNT/A. Only data that successfully passed quality control measures were included in subsequent analysis. Initially, Differentially Expressed Genes (DEGs) were identified from BoNT/A and control samples, followed by Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses. Biomarkers were then identified by constructing a Protein- Protein Interaction (PPI) network and utilizing the CytoHubba plug-in in Cytoscape software. Lastly, enrichment analysis and regulatory network analysis were performed to elucidate the potential mechanism of BoNT/A in the treatment of NP. 93 DEGs related to the "cell component size regulation" GO term and enriched in the "axon guidance" KEGG pathway were identified. Subsequently, 6 biomarkers were identified, namely PTPRF, CHDH, CKM, Ky, Sema3b, and Sema3f, which were enriched in pathways related to biosynthesis and metabolism, disease progression, signal transduction, and organelle function, including the "ribosome" and "Wnt signaling pathway." Finally, a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNAs) network was constructed from 6 mRNAs, 66 miRNAs, and 31 lncRNAs, forming a complex relationship network. Six genes (PTPRF, Sema3b, Sema3f, CHDH, CKM, and Ky) were identified as biomarkers of microglial inflammatory activation following BoNT/A treatment. This finding may provide a valuable reference for the relief and treatment of neuropathic pain.

Microglia in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus sense hemodynamic disturbance and promote sympathetic excitation in hypertension

Hypertension is usually accompanied by elevated sympathetic tonicity, but how sympathetic hyperactivity is triggered is not clear. Recent advances revealed that microglia-centered neuroinflammation contributes to sympathetic excitation in hypertension. In this study, we performed a temporospatial analysis of microglia at both morphological and transcriptomic levels and found that microglia in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN), a sympathetic center, were early responders to hypertensive challenges. Vasculature analyses revealed that the PVN was characterized by high capillary density, thin vessel diameter, and complex vascular topology relative to other brain regions. As such, the PVN was susceptible to the penetration of ATP released from the vasculature in response to hemodynamic disturbance after blood pressure increase. Mechanistically, ATP ligation to microglial P2Y12 receptor was responsible for microglial inflammatory activation and the eventual sympathetic overflow. Together, these findings identified a distinct vasculature pattern rendering vulnerability of PVN pre-sympathetic neurons to hypertension-associated microglia-mediated inflammatory insults.

Knockdown of microglial iron import gene, DMT1, worsens cognitive function and alters microglial transcriptional landscape in a sex-specific manner in the APP/PS1 model of Alzheimer's disease.

Microglial cell iron load and inflammatory activation are significant hallmarks of late-stage Alzheimer's disease (AD). In vitro, microglia preferentially upregulate the iron importer, divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1, gene name Slc11a2) in response to inflammatory stimuli, and excess iron can augment cellular inflammation, suggesting a feed-forward loop between iron import mechanisms and inflammatory signaling. However, it is not understood whether microglial iron import mechanisms directly contribute to inflammatory signaling and chronic disease in vivo. These studies determined the effects of microglial-specific knockdown of Slc11a2 on AD-related cognitive decline and microglial transcriptional phenotype. In vitro experiments and RT-qPCR were used to assess a role for DMT1 in amyloid-β-associated inflammation. To determine the effects of microglial Slc11a2 knockdown on AD-related phenotypes in vivo, triple-transgenic Cx3cr1 Cre - ERT2 ;Slc11a2 flfl;APP/PS1 + or - mice were generated and administered corn oil or tamoxifen to induce knockdown at 5-6 months of age. Both sexes underwent behavioral analyses to assess cognition and memory (12-15 months of age). Hippocampal CD11b + microglia were magnetically isolated from female mice (15-17 months) and bulk RNA-sequencing analysis was conducted. DMT1 inhibition in vitro robustly decreased Aβ-induced inflammatory gene expression and cellular iron levels in conditions of excess iron. In vivo, Slc11a2 KD APP/PS1 female, but not male, mice displayed a significant worsening of memory function in Morris water maze and a fear conditioning assay, along with significant hyperactivity compared to control WT and APP/PS1 mice. Hippocampal microglia from Slc11a2 KD APP/PS1 females displayed significant increases in Enpp2, Ttr, and the iron-export gene, Slc40a1, compared to control APP/PS1 cells. Slc11a2 KD cells from APP/PS1 females also exhibited decreased expression of markers associated with disease-associated microglia (DAMs), such as Apoe, Ctsb, Csf1, and Hif1α. This work suggests a sex-specific role for microglial iron import gene Slc11a2 in propagating behavioral and cognitive phenotypes in the APP/PS1 model of AD. These data also highlight an association between loss of a DAM-like phenotype in microglia and cognitive deficits in Slc11a2 KD APP/PS1 female mice. Overall, this work illuminates an iron-related pathway in microglia that may serve a protective role during disease and offers insight into mechanisms behind disease-related sex differences.

The inactive X chromosome drives sex differences in microglial inflammatory activity in human glioblastoma.

Biological sex is an important risk factor in cancer, but the underlying cell types and mechanisms remain obscure. Since tumor development is regulated by the immune system, we hypothesize that sex-biased immune interactions underpin sex differences in cancer. The male-biased glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an aggressive and treatment-refractory tumor in urgent need of more innovative approaches, such as considering sex differences, to improve outcomes. GBM arises in the specialized brain immune environment dominated by microglia, so we explored sex differences in this immune cell type. We isolated adult human TAM-MGs (tumor-associated macrophages enriched for microglia) and control microglia and found sex-biased inflammatory signatures in GBM and lower-grade tumors associated with pro-tumorigenic activity in males and anti-tumorigenic activity in females. We demonstrated that genes expressed or modulated by the inactive X chromosome facilitate this bias. Together, our results implicate TAM-MGs, specifically their sex chromosomes, as drivers of male bias in GBM.

LncRNA TUG1 mediates microglial inflammatory activation by regulating glucose metabolic reprogramming

Microglia are natural immune cells in the central nervous system, and the activation of microglia is accompanied by a reprogramming of glucose metabolism. In our study, we investigated the role of long non-coding RNA taurine-upregulated gene 1 (TUG1) in regulating microglial glucose metabolism reprogramming and activation. BV2 cells were treated with Lipopolysaccharides (LPS)/Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) to establish a microglial activation model. The glycolysis inhibitor 2-Deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG) was used as a control. The expression levels of TUG1 mRNA and proinflammatory cytokines such as Interleukin-1β (IL-1β), Interleukin -6, and Tumor Necrosis Factor-α mRNA and anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-4, Arginase 1(Arg1), CD206, and Ym1 were detected by RT-qPCR. TUG1 was silenced using TUG1 siRNA and knocked out using CRISPR/Cas9. The mRNA and protein expression levels of key enzymes involved in glucose metabolism, such as Hexokinase2, Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), Lactate dehydrogenase, Glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase, and Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), were determined by RT-qPCR and Western blotting. The glycolytic rate of microglial cells was measured using Seahorse. Differential metabolites were determined by metabolomics, and pathway enrichment was performed using these differential metabolites. Our findings revealed that the expression of TUG1 was elevated in proinflammatory-activated microglia and positively correlated with the levels of inflammatory factors. The expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-4, Arg1, CD206, and Ym1 were decreased when induced with LPS/IFN-γ. However, this decrease was reversed by the treatment with 2-DG. Silencing of GAPDH led to an increase in the expression of TUG1 and inflammatory factors. TUG1 knockout (TUG1KO) inhibited the expression of glycolytic key enzymes and promoted the expression of oxidative phosphorylation key enzymes, shifting the metabolic profile of activated microglia from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation. Additionally, TUG1KO reduced the accumulation of metabolites, facilitating the restoration of the tricarboxylic acid cycle and enhancing oxidative phosphorylation in microglia. Furthermore, the downregulation of TUG1 was found to reduce the expression of both proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines under normal conditions. Interestingly, when induced with LPS/IFN-γ, TUG1 downregulation showed a potentially beneficial effect on microglia in terms of inflammation. Downregulation of TUG1 expression inhibits glycolysis and facilitates the shift of microglial glucose metabolism from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation, promoting their transformation towards an anti-inflammatory phenotype and exerting anti-inflammatory effects in BV2.

Interleukin-9 protects from microglia- and TNF-mediated synaptotoxicity in experimental multiple sclerosis

BackgroundMultiple sclerosis (MS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system characterized by inflammation-driven synaptic abnormalities. Interleukin-9 (IL-9) is emerging as a pleiotropic cytokine involved in MS pathophysiology.MethodsThrough biochemical, immunohistochemical, and electrophysiological experiments, we investigated the effects of both peripheral and central administration of IL-9 on C57/BL6 female mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a model of MS.ResultsWe demonstrated that both systemic and local administration of IL-9 significantly improved clinical disability, reduced neuroinflammation, and mitigated synaptic damage in EAE. The results unveil an unrecognized central effect of IL-9 against microglia- and TNF-mediated neuronal excitotoxicity. Two main mechanisms emerged: first, IL-9 modulated microglial inflammatory activity by enhancing the expression of the triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-2 (TREM2) and reducing TNF release. Second, IL-9 suppressed neuronal TNF signaling, thereby blocking its synaptotoxic effects.ConclusionsThe data presented in this work highlight IL-9 as a critical neuroprotective molecule capable of interfering with inflammatory synaptopathy in EAE. These findings open new avenues for treatments targeting the neurodegenerative damage associated with MS, as well as other inflammatory and neurodegenerative disorders of the central nervous system.

The role of ZC3H12D-regulated TLR4-NF-κB pathway in LPS-induced pro-inflammatory microglial activation

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is an important neurotoxin that can cause inflammatory activation of microglia. ZC3H12D is a novel immunomodulator, which plays a remarkable role in neurological pathologies. It has not been characterized whether ZC3H12D is involved in the regulation of microglial activation. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of ZC3H12D in LPS-induced pro-inflammatory microglial activation and its potential mechanism. To elucidate this, we established animal models of inflammatory injury by intraperitoneal injection of LPS (10 mg/kg). The results of the open-field test showed that LPS caused impaired motor function in mice. Meanwhile, LPS caused pro-inflammatory activation of microglia in the mice cerebral cortex and inhibited the expression of ZC3H12D. We also constructed in vitro inflammatory injury models by treating BV-2 microglia with LPS (0.5 μg/mL). The results showed that down-regulated ZC3H12D expression was associated with LPS-induced pro-inflammatory microglial activation, and further intervention of ZC3H12D expression could inhibited LPS-induced pro-inflammatory activation of microglia. In addition, LPS activated the TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathway, and this process can also be reversed by promoting ZC3H12D expression. At the same time, the addition of resveratrol, a nutrient previously proven to inhibit pro-inflammatory microglial activation, can also reverse this process by increasing the expression of ZC3H12D. Summarized, our data elucidated that ZC3H12D in LPS-induced pro-inflammatory activation of brain microglia via restraining the TLR4-NF-κB pathway. This study may provide a valuable clue for potential therapeutic targets for neuroinflammation-related injuries.

Tumor necrosis factor α-induced protein 8-like-2 controls microglia phenotype via metabolic reprogramming in BV2 microglial cells and responses to neuropathic pain

Microglial are major players in neuroinflammation that have recently emerged as potential therapeutic targets for neuropathic pain. Glucose metabolic programming has been linked to differential activation state and function in microglia. Tumor necrosis factor α-induced protein 8-like-2 (TNFAIP8L2) is an important component in regulating the anti-inflammatory response. However, the role of TNFAIP8L2 in microglia differential state during neuropathic pain and its interplay with glucose metabolic reprogramming in microglia has not yet been determined. Thus, we aimed to investigate the role of TNFAIP8L2 in the status of microglia in vitro and in vivo. BV2 microglial cells were treated with lipopolysaccharides plus interferon-gamma (LPS/IFNγ) or interleukin-4 (IL-4) to induce the two different phenotypes of microglia in vitro. In vivo experiments were conducted by chronic constriction injury of the sciatic nerve (CCI). We investigated whether TNFAIP8L2 regulates glucose metabolic programming in BV2 microglial cells. The data in vitro showed that TNFAIP8L2 lowers glycolysis and increases mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) in inflammatory microglia. Blockade of glycolytic pathway abolished TNFAIP8L2-mediated differential activation of microglia. TNFAIP8L2 suppresses inflammatory microglial activation and promotes restorative microglial activation in BV2 microglial cells and in spinal cord microglia after neuropathic pain. Furthermore, TNFAIP8L2 controls differential activation of microglia and glucose metabolic reprogramming through the MAPK/mTOR/HIF-1α signaling axis. This study reveals that TNFAIP8L2 plays a critical role in neuropathic pain, providing important insights into glucose metabolic reprogramming and microglial phenotypic transition, which indicates that TNFAIP8L2 may be used as a potential drug target for the prevention of neuropathic pain.

The inflammatory injury of microglia involved in Tourette syndrome development

Tourette Syndrome (TS), a chronic neuroinflammatory disorder, is characterized by motor and vocal tics. Microglial inflammatory activity in TS is increased, while microglial-mediated clearance mechanisms are compromised. Our study aimed to investigate the effect of puerarin on microglial inflammation. Our study confirmed that 20 mg/mL of puerarin was the optimal intervention concentration by CCK8 analysis. Furthermore, we found that puerarin could inhibit proinflammatory factors and up-regulate anti-inflammatory factors at the protein and mRNA levels, thus playing a role in regulating microglial inflammation. This study provides a new strategy for regulating neuroinflammation in TS.

Acteoside alleviates blood–brain barrier damage induced by ischemic stroke through inhibiting microglia HMGB1/TLR4/NLRP3 signaling

Ischemic stroke (IS) can cause severe harm, inducing oxidative stress, inflammation, and pyroptotic death. IS treatment efficacy remains limited, and microglia are important regulators of IS-related blood–brain barrier (BBB) damage. It is thus vital that new therapeutic agents capable of targeting microglia be identified to treat IS-related damage to the BBB. Acteoside (ACT), which is a compound derived from Cistanche tubulosa (Schenk) Wight., offers promising bioactivity, but its ability to protect against central nervous system injury remains to be documented. To clarify the protective benefits and mechanisms through which ACT can protect against damage to the BBB, a rat middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model system was herein employed. These in vivo analyses demonstrated that ACT was able to significantly reduce cerebral infarct size while improving their neurological scores and altering neurotrophic and inflammatory factor release. RNA sequencing and molecular docking studies highlighted the ability of ACT to exert its protective benefits via the HMGB1/TLR4/NLRP3 axis. Western immunoblotting and immunofluorescent staining for tight junction proteins additionally confirmed the ability of ACT to preserve BBB integrity. The underlying mechanisms were then explored with an oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) model in vitro with BV2 cells. This strategy thus confirmed that the ability of ACT to suppress microglial inflammatory and pyroptotic activity was HMGB1/TLR4/NLRP3 pathway-dependent. These data thus offer novel evidence that ACT can protect against IS-related damage to the BBB through the abrogation of inflammatory and pyroptotic activity, underscoring its promise as a novel lead compound for the therapeutic treatment of IS.

Liver-Derived Ketogenesis via Overexpressing HMGCS2 Promotes the Recovery of Spinal Cord Injury.

The liver is the major ketogenic organ of the body, and ketones are reported to possess favorable neuroprotective effects. This study aims to elucidate whether ketone bodies generated from the liver play a critical role in bridging the liver and spinal cord. Mice model with a contusive spinal cord injury (SCI) surgery is established, and SCI induces significant histological changes in mice liver. mRNA-seq of liver tissue shows the temporal changes of ketone bodies-related genes, β-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (BDH1) and solute carrier family 16 (monocarboxylic acid transporters), member 6 (SLC16A6). Then, an activated ketogenesis model is created with adult C57BL/6 mice receiving the tail intravenous injection of GPAAV8-TBG-Mouse-Hmgcs2-CMV- mCherry -WPRE (HMGCS2liver ) and mice receiving equal AAV8-Null being the control group (Vectorliver ). Then, the mice undergo either a contusive SCI or sham surgery. The results show that overexpression of HMG-CoA synthase (Hmgcs2) in mice liver dramatically alleviates SCI-mediated pathological changes and promotes ketogenesis in the liver. Amazingly, liver-derived ketogenesis evidently alleviates neuron apoptosis and inflammatory microglia activation and improves the recovery of motor function of SCI mice. In conclusion, a liver-spinal cord axis can be bridged via ketone bodies, and enhancing the production of the ketone body within the liver has neuroprotective effects on traumatic SCI.

Stimulation of the Pro-Resolving Receptor Fpr2 Reverses Inflammatory Microglial Activity by Suppressing NFκB Activity.

Neuroinflammation driven primarily by microglia directly contributes to neuronal death in many neurodegenerative diseases. Classical anti-inflammatory approaches aim to suppress pro-inflammatory mediator production, but exploitation of inflammatory resolution may also be of benefit. A key driver of peripheral inflammatory resolution, formyl peptide receptor 2 (Fpr2), is expressed by microglia, but its therapeutic potential in neurodegeneration remains unclear. Here, we studied whether targeting of Fpr2 could reverse inflammatory microglial activation induced by the potent bacterial inflammogen lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Exposure of murine primary or immortalised BV2 microglia to LPS triggered pro-inflammatory phenotypic change and activation of ROS production, effects significantly attenuated by subsequent treatment with the Fpr2 agonist C43. Mechanistic studies showed C43 to act through p38 MAPK phosphorylation and reduction of LPS-induced NFκB nuclear translocation via prevention of IκBα degradation. Here, we provide proof-of-concept data highlighting Fpr2 as a potential target for control of microglial pro-inflammatory activity, suggesting that it may be a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of neuroinflammatory disease.

Pharmacological Inhibition of NHE1 Protein Increases White Matter Resilience and Neurofunctional Recovery after Ischemic Stroke.

To date, recanalization interventions are the only available treatments for ischemic stroke patients; however, there are no effective therapies for reducing stroke-induced neuroinflammation. We recently reported that H+ extrusion protein Na+/H+ exchanger-1 (NHE1) plays an important role in stroke-induced inflammation and white matter injury. In this study, we tested the efficacy of two potent NHE1 inhibitors, HOE642 and Rimeporide, with a delayed administration regimen starting at 24 h post-stroke in adult C57BL/6J mice. Post-stroke HOE642 and Rimeporide treatments accelerated motor and cognitive function recovery without affecting the initial ischemic infarct, neuronal damage, or reactive astrogliosis. However, the delayed administration of NHE1 blockers after ischemic stroke significantly reduced microglial inflammatory activation while enhanced oligodendrogenesis and white matter myelination, with an increased proliferation and decreased apoptosis of the oligodendrocytes. Our findings suggest that NHE1 protein plays an important role in microglia-mediated inflammation and white matter damage. The pharmacological blockade of NHE1 protein activity reduced microglia inflammatory responses and enhanced oligodendrogenesis and white matter repair, leading to motor and cognitive function recovery after stroke. Our study reveals the potential of targeting NHE1 protein as a therapeutic strategy for ischemic stroke therapy.

Hyperoside protects against oxidative stress-mediated photoreceptor degeneration: therapeutic potentials for photoreceptor degenerative diseases

BackgroundPhotoreceptor degeneration underpinned by oxidative stress-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death leads to progressive and irreversible vision impairment. Drug treatments that protect against photoreceptor degeneration are currently available in the clinical settings. It has been shown that hyperoside, a flavonol glycoside, protects against neuronal loss in part by suppressing oxidative stress and maintaining the functional integrity of mitochondria. However, whether hyperoside protects against photoreceptor degeneration remains unknown.MethodsTo address the pharmacological potentials of hyperoside against oxidative stress-mediated photoreceptor degeneration on molecular, cellular, structural and functional levels, multiple in vitro and in vivo methodologies were employed in the current study, including live-cell imaging, optical coherence tomography, electroretinography, histological/immunohistochemical examinations, transmission electron microscopy, RNA-sequencing and real-time qPCR.ResultsThe in vitro results demonstrate that hyperoside suppresses oxidative stress-mediated photoreceptor cell death in part by mitigating mitochondrial dysfunction. The in vivo results reveal that hyperoside protects against photooxidative stress-induced photoreceptor morphological, functional and ultrastructural degeneration. Meanwhile, hyperoside treatment offsets the deleterious impact of photooxidative stress on multiple molecular pathways implicated in the pathogenesis of photoreceptor degeneration. Lastly, hyperoside attenuates photoreceptor degeneration-associated microglial inflammatory activation and reactive Müller cell gliosis.ConclusionsAll things considered, the present study demonstrates for the first time that hyperoside attenuates oxidative stress-induced photoreceptor mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death. The photoreceptor-intrinsic protective effects of hyperoside are corroborated by hyperoside-conferred protection against photooxidative stress-mediated photoreceptor degeneration and perturbation in retinal homeostasis, warranting further evaluation of hyperoside as a photoreceptor protective agent for the treatment of related photoreceptor degenerative diseases.

LncRNA Gm44206 Promotes Microglial Pyroptosis Through NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD Axis and Aggravate Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury.

Inhibition of the inflammatory response triggered by microglial pyroptosis inflammatory activation may be one of the effective ways to alleviate cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury, the specific mechanism of which remains unclear. In this study, BV-2 microglia with or without oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) or long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) Gm44206 knockdown were used as cell models to conduct an in vitro study. Detection of lactate dehydrogenase release and pyroptosis-related protein levels was performed using a corresponding kit and western blotting, respectively. Proliferation of microglia was evaluated by CCK8 assay. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was applied for measuring levels of proinflammatory cytokines. This study verified the involvement of microglial pyroptosis as well as upregulation of NLRP3, Caspase-1, GSDMD, and Apoptosis-associated Speck-like protein containing a C-terminal caspase-recruitment domain (ASC) in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Moreover, knockdown of lncRNA Gm44206 could alleviate OGD/R-induced microglial pyroptosis and cell proliferation inhibition through the NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD pathway, thus decreasing the release of proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-18, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha. In conclusion, this study established a correlation between microglial pyroptosis and cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury and identified lncRNA Gm44206 as a potential regulator of NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD axis-mediated microglial pyroptosis, which could be considered a promising therapeutic target.

Roles and regulation of microglia activity in multiple sclerosis: insights from animal models.

As resident macrophages of the CNS, microglia are critical immune effectors of inflammatory lesions and associated neural dysfunctions. In multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal models, chronic microglial inflammatory activity damages myelin and disrupts axonal and synaptic activity. In contrast to these detrimental effects, the potent phagocytic and tissue-remodelling capabilities of microglia support critical endogenous repair mechanisms. Although these opposing capabilities have long been appreciated, a precise understanding of their underlying molecular effectors is only beginning to emerge. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of the roles of microglia in animal models of MS and demyelinating lesions and the mechanisms that underlie their damaging and repairing activities. We also discuss how the structured organization and regulation of the genome enables complex transcriptional heterogeneity within the microglial cell population at demyelinating lesions.

Levels of chemokines and other inflammatory mediators in patients with mild cognitive impairment undergoing rehabilitation

Alzheimer's disease is the most common neurodegenerative disease in old age. In some cases, it is preceded by mild cognitive impairment (MCI). One of the important components in the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration is chronic neuroinflammation (inflammatory activation of microglia and astrocytes in the brain). Systemic inflammatory response and immune dysregulation may contribute to neuroinflammation. The purpose of this study was to investigate the level of chemokines and other inflammatory mediators in patients with MCI who underwent medical rehabilitation, and to study its associations with the severity of cognitive impairment. The study group included 48 patients with MCI undergoing rehabilitation. Rehabilitation included cognitive therapy, psychotherapy and tasks for unaided performance. Repeated examination was conducted 6 months after the completion of rehabilitation. The control group included 46 healthy volunteers. Multiplex assay was used to determine serum cytokine and chemokine concentrations. Student's t-test was used to assess the significance of differences. Assessment of cognitive functions was performed using international neuropsychological scales. In patients with MCI, we have found an increase in the levels of several cytokines and chemokines (TNFα, CXCL10/IP10, MDC) that regulate systemic inflammation, cellular and humoral mechanisms of adaptive immunity. After the rehabilitation course their levels returned to normal. It was also found that decrease in CCL7 level in the patients before the rehabilitation course is associated with the severity of cognitive impairment. The findings contribute to understanding the role of chemokines in the pathogenesis of MCI, and indicate that their levels can be potential biomarkers of the severity of cognitive impairment. For translation of the findings into clinical practice, their validation in larger studies is needed, as well as assessing the associations between chemokine levels and the severity of cognitive impairment in MCI over long-term follow-up.

Microglial Responses to Stress-Induced Depression: Causes and Consequences.

Chronic stress is a major risk factor for various psychiatric diseases, including depression; it triggers various cellular and structural changes, resulting in the alteration of neurocircuitry and subsequent development of depression. Accumulating evidence suggests that microglial cells orchestrate stress-induced depression. Preclinical studies of stress-induced depression revealed microglial inflammatory activation in regions of the brain that regulate mood. Although studies have identified several molecules that trigger inflammatory responses in microglia, the pathways that regulate stress-induced microglial activation remain unclear. Understanding the exact triggers that induce microglial inflammatory activation can help find therapeutic targets in order to treat depression. In the current review, we summarize the recent literature on possible sources of microglial inflammatory activation in animal models of chronic stress-induced depression. In addition, we describe how microglial inflammatory signaling affects neuronal health and causes depressive-like behavior in animal models. Finally, we propose ways to target the microglial inflammatory cascade to treat depressive disorders.