Industrial Scale Research Articles

Non-Invasive Detection of Pesticide Residues in Freshly Harvested Olives Using Hyperspectral Imaging Technology

Pesticides play a crucial role in boosting the overall yield and productivity of agricultural produce by controlling pests, insects, and various plant diseases. However, excessive use of pesticides has led to contamination of food products and water bodies, as well as disruption of ecological and environmental systems. Global health authorities have set limits for pesticide residues in individual food items to ensure the availability of safe foods in the supply chain and to assist farmers in developing optimal agronomic practices for crop production. In Spain, specifically regarding olive cultivation, the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food establishes a safety period that farmers must observe from the application of the pesticide until the fruit is harvested. This period ensures that the batch of olives will comply with the maximum residue level allowed. This article proposes a methodology based on hyperspectral imaging to detect whether the olives have been sprayed with pesticide products and, if so, when the spraying occurred. The proposed methodology operates at the pixel level, where each pixel of the hyperspectral image is an instance. The pesticides evaluated were Diflufenican, Oxyfluorfen, Deltamethrin, λ-Cyhalothrin, and Tebuconazole. The results are promising and the success rates achieved over 80% accuracy for most pesticides in controlled laboratory conditions, with individual performance varying according to each pesticide's chemical properties and stability on the olive surface. While the results are promising, the scalability of this approach for larger and more diverse batches of olives requires validation under field conditions, where variations in environmental factors, olive variety, and ripeness may impact the detection accuracy. Furthermore, the study highlights key wavelengths around 750 nm and 550 nm as effective discriminators, suggesting potential for cost-effective, simplified imaging systems. Although hyperspectral imaging shows potential as an accessible, in-line monitoring solution for cooperative use, further analysis of implementation costs is recommended to confirm its feasibility on an industrial scale.

Long-term emission demonstration using pretreated urban non-woody biomass residues as fuel for small scale boilers

There is currently a lack of non-woody biogenic solid biofuels to replace fossil fuels to expand renewable heat energy due to their combustion-critical behavior (slagging and emissions). For this reason, this study demonstrates a best practice under which non-woody solid biofuels can be put into practice. For this demonstration, a homogeneous non-woody solid biofuel was produced from urban park foliage in accordance with ISO 17225-6:2021 on industrial scale (> 50 t). Long-term combustion tests were performed in a small-scale combustion system (80 kW) under field test conditions. Compliance with all emission thresholds of the legal framework was demonstrated (Carbon monoxide (CO): 44.9 mg/m³, Total particulate matter (TPM): 11.9 mg/m³, Nitrogen oxides (NOx): 279.6 mg/m³, Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans + Dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCDD/F+dl-PCB): 0.01 ng/m³ and Benzo[a]pyrene (B(a)P): 7.3*10-6 mg/m³). Additionally, nutrient cycles can be closed by applying the bottom ash as soil fertilizer additive. Based on the study, greenhouse gas-neutral fuels from non-woody biomass residues for comparable applications can be produced based on the demonstration.

Investigation into Recycling of Iron Oxide Scale on H13 Steel by Low‐Temperature Carbothermal Reduction Method

The current method for recovering iron oxide scale in the steel industry is not economically optimal, especially for high‐alloy scales found in alloyed steel. This study focuses on iron oxide scale containing valuable metals like chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), and vanadium (V). The required carbon addition is calculated based on the iron and chromium oxides in the scale. The effects of varying carbon additions and reduction temperatures on reduction efficiency are thoroughly examined. Kinetic studies show that as temperature and carbon increase, the rate‐limiting step shifts from interfacial diffusion to interfacial reaction. Reduction experiments assess carbon utilization, metallization rate, deoxidation rate, and removal of harmful elements. Results show that high temperatures hinder sulfur (S) and phosphorus (P) removal, and excess carbon reduces carbon utilization efficiency. Optimal conditions are a carbon ratio of 0.2174 and a temperature of 1150 °C. The carbothermic reduction product requires further refinement through conventional ladle slag systems to meet the quality standards for metallic materials. Over 65% of alloying elements are recovered, though phosphorus content remains slightly higher than in finished alloy steel. The materials from this study are suitable as high‐quality intermediates for alloy steel production.

Novel sparging strategies to enhance dissolved carbon dioxide stripping in industrial scale stirred tank reactors

Aerated stirred tank reactors are widely used in bio-process engineering and pharmaceutical industries. To supply the organisms with oxygen and control the pH value, oxygen is transferred from air bubbles into the liquid phase, and, at the same time, carbon dioxide is stripped from the liquid phase with the same gas bubbles. The volumetric mass transfer coefficients for oxygen and carbon dioxide are, therefore, of crucial importance for the design and scale-up of aerated stirred tank reactors. In this experimental work, the volumetric mass transfer coefficients for oxygen and carbon dioxide are investigated simultaneously to study their mutual influence. The mass transfer performance for oxygen and carbon dioxide is conducted in stirred tank reactors on the 3 L laboratory scale, 30 L pilot scale, and 15,000 L production scale. First, the influence of dissolved carbon dioxide on the oxygen mass transfer performance is investigated in a 30 L pilot scale stirred tank reactor. The results show that the volumetric mass transfer coefficient of oxygen is not affected by the concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide, but the total mass flux of oxygen decreases with increasing carbon dioxide concentration due to the decreasing partial pressure difference. With rising gassing rate and volumetric power input, both mass transfer coefficients for oxygen and carbon dioxide show the same increasing trend. Although this trend can also be observed when scaling down to the 3 L laboratory scale reactor, a significantly different effect must be considered for the scale-up to the 15,000 L industrial scale reactor. The limited absorption capacity for carbon dioxide of the gas bubbles during the long residence time in the industrial scale reactor is noticeable here, which is why the specific interfacial area is of negligible importance. This effect is used to develop a method for independent control of oxygen and carbon dioxide mass transfer performance on an industrial scale and to increase the mass transfer performance for carbon dioxide by up to 25%.

Direct parallel electrosynthesis of high-value chemicals from atmospheric components on symmetry-breaking indium sites

To tackle significant environmental and energy challenges from increased greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere, we propose a method that synergistically combines cost-efficient integrated systems with parallel catalysis to produce high-value chemicals from CO2, NO, and other gases. We employed asymmetrically stretched InO5S with symmetry-breaking indium sites as a highly efficient trifunctional catalysts for NO reduction, CO2 reduction, and O2 reduction. Mechanistic studies reveal that the symmetry-breaking at indium sites substantially improves d-band center interactions and adsorption of intermediates, thereby enhancing trifunctional catalytic activity. Employed in a flow electrolysis system, the catalyst achieves continuous and flexible production of NH3, HCOO-, and H2O2, maintaining over 90% Faradaic efficiency at industrial scales. Notably, the parallel electrolysis device reported in this study effectively produces high-value products like NH4COOH directly from greenhouse gases in pure water, offering an economically efficient solution for small molecule synthesis and unique insights for the sustainable conversion of inexhaustible gases into valuable products. Therefore, this work possesses considerable potential for future practical applications in sustainable industrial processes.

Enhancement of surfactant performance via titanium dioxide nanoparticles: implication for oil recovery in sandstone

The application of titanium dioxide nanoparticles in the petroleum research area has received ample attention in recent years owing to its impact on wettability-altering agents. Further, employing a surfactant injection to improve oil production in sandstone formations on an industrial scale has become an alternative solution, particularly for mature fields. However, the existing literature on the combination of alkyl ethoxy carboxylate (AEC) surfactant with titanium dioxide nanoparticles on the application of enhanced oil recovery in sandstone formations remains underreported. This study explores the impact of combining AEC surfactant with titanium dioxide nanoparticles on recovering trapped oil in sandstone by examining the interfacial tension, contact angle, zeta potential, and core flooding with various concentrations of added titanium dioxide nanoparticles (0, 0.01, 0.025, and 0.05 wt%) on AEC surfactant. Although the addition of 0.05 wt% TiO2 to AEC surfactant can significantly reduce the interfacial tension to the lowest value of 5.85 × 10−5 mN/m, our results show that the highest oil recovery in Berea sandstone (59.52% recovery factor) is achieved at the concentration of 0.025 wt% added TiO2 to AEC surfactant. We find that the stability of TiO2 nanoparticles on AEC surfactant plays a significant role in getting maximum oil recovery. These important findings from this study contribute to improving our understanding on the application of TiO2 combined with AEC surfactant to achieve more efficient and sustainable enhanced oil recovery in sandstone.

Physicochemical and Antimicrobial Properties of Lactic Acid-Based Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents as a Function of Water Content

The interest in natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs) in green technology as an alternative to organic solvents has grown over the past decades. In this work, for the first time, the effect of dilution with water on the physicochemical and antimicrobial properties of lactic acid-based NADES with choline chloride (NADES1), sorbitol (NADES2), and glucose (NADES3) was systematically studied. According to FTIR data, after the dilution of NADESs with water, the strong hydrogen bonds weakened, however, were not destroyed after dilution of up to 40% water. The dilution of NADES with water resulted in a linear decrease in density and refractive index and in a linear increase in pH. The equations for the prediction of NADES density, pH, and refractive index as a function of water content were calculated. The viscosity decreased by half after adding approximately 10% water. The initial viscosity of NADES2 and NADES3 was significantly different. However, after adding 20% of the water, the viscosity was almost the same. The most pronounced decrease in surface tension (by 46.7%) was found for NADES1. The water activity was decreased in the following order: NADES3 > NADES1 > NADES2. The dilution of NADES with water caused a gradual increase in water activity. NADES1 showed the lowest minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) (7.8, 3.9, and 0.98 mg/mL) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBC) (15.6, 7.8, and 1.95 mg/mL) for Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus, respectively. The antimicrobial activity was decreased by 2–8 times after the addition of 40% water. The water activity for all tested NADES together with low pH could explain the antimicrobial effect. The revealed regularity can be useful for the prediction of NADES properties and for the selection of green solvents on a laboratory and industrial scale.

A Review of the Measurement of the Multiphase Slug Frequency

The slug frequency (SF), which refers to the number of liquid slugs passing through a pipe during a specific time, is an important parameter for characterizing the multiphase intermittent flows and monitoring some process involving this kind of flow. The simplicity of the definition of SF contrasts with the difficulty of correctly measuring it. This manuscript aims to review and discuss the various techniques and methods developed to determine the slug frequency experimentally. This review significantly reveals the absence of a universal measurement method applicable to a wide range of operating conditions. Thus, the recourse to recording videos with high-speed cameras, which can be used only at a laboratory scale, remains often necessary. From the summarized state-of-the-art, it appears that correctly defining the threshold values for detecting the liquid slugs/elongated bubbles interface from physical parameters time series, increasing the applicability of instrumentations at industrial scales, and properly estimating the uncertainties are the challenges that have to be faced to advance in the measurement of SF.

Design and Implementation of Line Follower Robot for Automatic Watering of Orchid Plants

This study studies how the line follower robot is made and used for the automation of watering orchid plants. The purpose of using this robot is to reduce the involvement of human hands in the watering process and improve the efficiency of water use. This robot, which is made with an Arduino microcontroller, has an infrared sensor that can detect paths and has an automatic water pump for water distribution. The tests were carried out in a greenhouse where the orchids were well cared for. The results show that the robot can effectively water plants by saving up to 35% water compared to manual methods and increasing productivity by 20%. This invention can be applied on a larger scale in the horticultural industry.

Photochemistry dominates over photothermal effects in the laser-induced reduction of graphene oxide by visible light

Graphene oxide (GO) possesses specific properties that are revolutionizing materials science, with applications extending from flexible electronics to advanced nanotechnology. A key method for harnessing GO’s potential is its laser-induced reduction, yet the exact mechanisms — photothermal versus photochemical effects — remain unclear. Herein, we discover the dominant role of photochemical reactions in the laser reduction of GO under visible light, challenging the prevailing assumption that photothermal effects are dominant. Employing a combination of Raman thermometry, X-ray photoelectron and photoluminescence spectroscopies, and electrical atomic force microscopy, we quantify the temperature and map the reduction process across micro and nano scales. Our findings demonstrate that the photochemical cleavage of oxygen-containing groups below a reduction threshold temperature is a decisive factor in GO reduction, leading to distinct characteristics that cannot be replicated by heating alone. This work clarifies the fundamental mechanisms of GO transformation under visible laser irradiation, highlighting the dominant role of photochemical processes. Distinguishing these subtleties enables the development of laser-reduced GO platforms for graphene-based applications compatible with industrial scales. We illustrate this potential by encoding information on GO surfaces as optical storage, allowing us to write binary sequences in long-term memory encoding invisible even through an optical microscope.

Quality Characteristics and Essential Oil Properties of Thymus capitatus, Mentha piperita, and Sideritis cypria Dried under Different Conditions

The drying of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) is one of the main preservation methods for these products that can prolong their shelf life, if performed properly. The current study aimed to examine the effects of different drying conditions (sun, shade, and oven drying at 42 °C) on the quality characteristics of Thymus capitatus, Mentha piperita, and Sideritis cypria; their essential oil (EO) yield; and their biological properties (antioxidant and antibacterial activities). According to the results of the current study, oven drying resulted in faster moisture loss for all investigated species and slightly darker products. For T. capitatus, sun drying resulted in higher EO carvacrol content, whereas EOs obtained from shade and oven drying (at 42 °C) presented high total phenolic content and great antimicrobial activity. For M. piperita, shade drying resulted in a higher EO yield and higher iso-menthone content, whilst the EO obtained from oven-dried mint plants presented great antibacterial activity against the investigated foodborne pathogens. S. cypria plants dried in an air-ventilated oven produced an EO rich in β-caryophyllene and α-pinene, which also presented great antioxidant and antibacterial activity. The findings of the current study indicate that traditional drying methods, such as sun and shade, can result in good-quality dried MAPs that can yield EOs with significant biological activities, along with minimum energy consumption and lower carbon dioxide production (lower environmental carbon footprint), as opposed to oven drying. However, the drying-process duration could be a limitation at the industrial scale.

A Comprehensive Review of CO2 Mineral Sequestration Methods Using Coal Fly Ash for Carbon Capture, Utilisation, and Storage (CCUS) Technology

CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion are the main source of anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHGs). A method of reducing CO2 emissions is CCUS (carbon capture, utilisation, and storage) technology. One part of CCUS technology involves mineral sequestration as its final stage, utilisation, which can be carried out using natural raw materials or waste. This is a particularly interesting option for power and CHP plants that use coal as their primary fuel. Combustion processes produce fly ash as a waste by-product, which has a high potential for CO2 sequestration. Calcium fly ash from lignite combustion and fly ash from fluidised bed boilers have particularly high potential due to their high CaO content. Fly ash can be used in the mineral sequestration of CO2 via direct and indirect carbonation. Both methods use CO2 and flue gases. Studies conducted so far have analysed the influence of factors such as temperature, pressure, and the liquid-to-solid (L/S) ratio on the carbonation process, which have shown different effects depending on the ash used and the form of the process. Due to the large differences found in the properties of fly ash, related primarily to the type of fuel and boiler used, the process of mineral CO2 sequestration requires much research into its feasibility on an industrial scale. However, the method is promising for industrial applications due to the possibility of reducing CO2 emissions and, at the same time, recovering waste.

A Segmented Along the Channel Test Cell for Locally Resolved Analysis at High Current Densities in PEM Water Electrolysis

Abstract For the scale-up of proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysis, understanding the cell behavior on industrial scale is a prerequisite. A proper distribution of current and temperature in the cell can improve performance and decrease overall degradation effects. Due to water consumption as well as the concomitant gas evolution and accumulation, gradients and inhomogeneities along the reaction coordinate are expected. These effects increase along the water supply channels of a flow field and are expected to lead to spatial gradients in cell performance and temperature. At high current densities (> 5 A∙cm-2) these effects are anticipated to be critical due to the high amount of gas produced and the increased degradation rate resulting from the high overpotentials. 
In this study we present a new test cell that is segmented along the flow field channels and is designed for the operation at high current densities of up to 10 A∙cm-2. With this approach it is possible to analyze performance gradients and the spatial distribution of loss processes under industry-relevant conditions by measuring the current density and temperature distribution and by performing locally resolved electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS).

Pilot-scale process development for recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) production based on high-density Sf9 cell culture

BackgroundIn recent years, gene therapy drugs have been widely marketed, and their effectiveness and potential have been confirmed. Thus, increasing their production on an industrial scale is critical. Recombinant adeno-associated viruses (rAAVs) are optimal vectors for gene therapy applications, and the baculovirus expression vector system (BEVS), which is based on Sf9 cell culture, is a common tool for rAAV production.MethodsIn this work, an Sf9 cell fed-batch process was developed using shake flasks. In the laboratory-scale bioreactor, four processes were selected as the key factors when carrying out the orthogonal experiment. On the basis of the equal P/V principle and considering the problem posed by air bubbles, a pilot-scale level bioreactor process was established.ResultsHere, we describe a method in which a BEVS was used to produce rAAV vectors, with the cell density increasing to 22.8 × 106 cells/mL and the rAAV titre increasing to 20 × 1011 VG/mL upon adding feed material. By resolving the problems associated with high-density cell culture and air bubbles, this process was successfully scaled to a 50 L pilot-scale level.ConclusionsThis successful experiment not only provides a technological basis for further scale-up but also guarantees product capacity. We hope that this development process can provide reference data for studying cell culture-based drug production.

Development and Large-Scale Production of High-Oleic Acid Oil by Fermentation of Microalgae

Our classical strain improvement began with an isolate showing 28% palmitic and 60% oleic acids. UV and chemical mutagenesis enhanced our strain’s productivity, carbon yield, and oleic acid content. The iterative methodology we used involved the creation of mutant libraries followed by clonal isolation, assessments of feedstock utilization and growth, oil titer, and the validation of oil composition. Screening these libraries facilitated the identification of isolates with the ability to produce elevated levels of oleic acid, aligning with the targets for high-oleic acid substitutes. Utilizing a classical strain improvement approach, we successfully isolated a high-oleic acid strain wherein the level of oleic acid was increased from 60 to >86% of total FA. The performance of the classically improved high oleic acid-producing strain was assessed at fermentation scales ranging from 1 L to 4000 L, demonstrating the utility of our strain and process at an industrial scale. These oils offer promise in various applications across both the food and industrial sectors, with the added potential of furthering sustainability and health-conscious initiatives.

Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue dye by ZnO nanoparticle thin films, using Sol–gel technique and UV laser irradiation

The focus of the current work is the study of the effect of the photo-catalytic activity of ZnO nanoparticles. The photocatalytic destruction of methylene blue dye, a common water contaminant, was used to assess the photocatalytic efficiency of the ZnO nanoparticles from its aqueous solution by using ZnO nanoparticles thin film under UV light and laser irradiation. Sol–gel methods prepared ZnO nanoparticle thin films. X-ray diffraction and a field-emitted scanning electron microscope were utilized to examine the structure of the produced ZnO nanoparticles. An extended characterization by laser-based fluorescence and UV–visible spectroscopic techniques. The effects of operational parameters such as photo-catalyst load and contact time on photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue were investigated. The recent study’s findings showed that irradiation with a UV laser increases with power density 25 µW/cm2, the photo-catalytic rate. The UV spectra show decay for the band at 664nm decreased and the concentration of M.B. in monomer form decayed to 26% of the original concentration in 24 h, while the band at 612 which is related to the dimer M.B. molecules was not affected. The laser irradiation did the same for monomer M.B. molecules in only 3 h, while the dimer decreased to 28% of its original concentration. The reaction mechanism has been discussed by molecular modelling. Quantum mechanical calculations at B3LYP/6-311g(d,p) level indicated that methylene blue changed from dimers to monomers in the existence of ZnO. The current results present a method for degrading M.B. not only in wastewater but also in the industrial waste scale.

Sustainable Solutions in Gas Separation: Exploring the Potential of Deep Eutectic Solvents

In the face of escalating environmental concerns, particularly related to greenhouse gas emissions, this study delves into the potential of Deep Eutectic Solvents (DESs) as a sustainable alternative in gas separation technologies. Focusing on the significant emissions of CO2, SO2, and H2S from industrial processes, this work reviews the application of DESs for their capture and separation. We investigate the physical properties of DESs, such as solubility and viscosity, which are crucial for their efficacy as sorbents. This review includes a comprehensive analysis of various DES formulations, exploring their roles in CO2 absorption, SO2 removal, and the separation of other gases like H2S. Additionally, we extend our examination to the applicability of DESs in the oil and gas industry, highlighting their effectiveness in removing sulfur and nitrogen impurities, and their potential in the extraction of organic constituents. The study reveals that DESs, characterized by their biodegradability and environmental sustainability, offer promising performance in gas separation, aligning with the principles of green chemistry. However, challenges such as high viscosity and the need for further understanding of their solubility dynamics under different conditions are addressed. This work underscores the importance of DESs as novel sorbents for gas purification and sets a foundation for future research aimed at enhancing their application on a broader industrial scale.

Enhancing the discharge uniformity of atmospheric pressure DBD cold plasma for food efficient microbial inactivation

Identification and optimization of the discharge uniformity is worldwide problems in the plasma industry. In this study, a simple, practical, and economical alternative for quantitatively identifying discharge uniformity of DBD plasma was proposed using the gray-level histogram, discharge area curve, and gray level transformation characteristics of discharge images. The influences of discharge peak voltage, excitation frequency, dielectric material, and dielectric thickness on discharge uniformity on the time scale of seconds were discussed, and the intrinsic relationship and mechanism between discharge uniformity and microbial inactivation efficiency were revealed. Within a certain range, with the gradual increase of discharge peak voltage (13–17 kV), excitation frequency (9–11 kHz), relative dielectric constant (3.6–9.6), and the gradual decrease of dielectric thickness (1–5 mm), the discharge image corresponded to the relative discharge uniformity and the average inactivation of L. monocytogenes and S. typhimurium (0.12–1.40 log-reduction and 0.26–2.34 log-reduction) increased as a whole. Overall, the findings revealed disruption or improvement of the discharge uniformity was the main factor contributing to the inactivation of bacteria by cold plasma, facilitating the scaling-up of DBD reactors on an industrial scale.

Edible Films from the Laboratory to Industry: A Review of the Different Production Methods

AbstractEdible films or coatings as potential replacements for traditional plastic food packaging are a popular subject for research. This article provides a narrative summary of the progress of research into edible food packaging and preparation methods at three different production scales over the past 5 years. First, at the laboratory research level, commonly used coating methods include dipping, vacuum dipping, and spraying. Films are mostly made by solution casting, while 3D printing film technology and electrospinning/electrostatic spraying are emerging technologies in the field. At the pilot level, panning coating, brush coating, and fluidized bed technologies give edible food packaging a more scalable and realistic approach. On an industrial manufacturing scale, in order to improve film formation efficiency, blowing, injection, calendering, etc. are generally based on the extrusion mode. Laboratory-scale research is critical for developing materials and exploring their properties. The technology used for industrial-scale production needs to consider factors such as cost and efficiency. Each technology for making food packaging needs to be selected according to the production purposes and the currently available packaging equipment. However, commonly used edible packaging source materials are generally derived from biological macromolecules such as proteins and polysaccharides. These materials are heated and extruded in industrial production, and their performance will be inferior to that of traditional plastic packaging. In addition, high cost is also a factor that must be considered.

Ternary MXene/PANI/ZnO-based composite with a built-in p–n heterojunction for high-performance supercapacitor applications

Abstract Two-dimensional (2D) Ti3C2T x MXene-based materials have attracted widespread attraction in the field of energy storage owing to their high conductivity and accordion-like structure. However, challenges such as restacking and oxidative degradation of the Ti3C2T x MXene structure lead to poor stability, low conductivity, low specific capacitance and, consequently, a low specific energy, hindering their extensive adoption at an industrial scale. In this study, a ternary MXene/polyaniline (PANI)/ZnO (MPZ) composite has been synthesized via surface engineering of two-dimensional (2D) MXene using one-dimensional (1D) PANI nanowires and ZnO nanoparticles to enhance its specific energy and stability while sustaining its specific power. 1D PANI nanowires and ZnO nanoparticles act as spacers to prevent restacking, while also exposing the suppressed redox active sites of 2D MXene and preventing it from being oxidized by forming a porous conductive network all over the surface of the MXene. PANI and ZnO also provide additional electroactive redox sites by forming p–n heterojunctions, thus enhancing faradaic redox reactions and the specific capacitance of the MPZ composite. As a result, the overall electrochemical performance and stability of the ternary MPZ composite are enhanced due to the synergistic interactions among the individual components within the ternary MPZ composite. At a low current density of 0.1 A g−1, the ternary MPZ composite exhibited a maximum specific capacitance of 651.96 F g−1 and a highest specific energy of 32.59 Wh Kg−1 while maintaining a specific power of 60 W Kg−1 as compared to MXene and binary MP composite. Furthermore, it showcased exceptional cyclic stability over 10 000 cycles with 94.75% and 92.95% capacitive retention at 0.6 A g−1 current density and 40 mV s−1 scan rate, respectively. Thus, this current study highlights an effective strategy to enhance the specific energy of MXene-based supercapacitors through surface engineering and the construction of p–n heterojunctions within the composite.