Individual Quarters Research Articles

„To jest firmamentum potestatis regia”. Wojsko kwarciane w latach 1587–1588

The article discusses the numbers and functioning of the wojsko kwarciane (Quartered Army) in the turbulent third interregnum and in the first year of the reign of Sigismund III. Thanks to the access to the previously unused fiscal and military materials, it was possible to determine the size of this army in individual quarters of the period of interest and the names of the captains. No less important aspect is the political context of the use of wojsko kwarciane in a situation of the election parliament being split and attempts made to weaken the position of the Grand Hetman of the Crown, Jan Zamoyski, and the subjecting of his prerogatives to a nationwide discussion.

19 Comparative Evaluation of Human-edible Animal Products Derived from Offspring of Genome Edited and Control Cattle

Abstract Risk assessments of genetically modified (GM) animals include evaluating whether milk and meat derived from the GM animal is as nutritious to humans and/or animals as traditionally-bred animals. The underlying assumption of this comparative approach is that traditionally-bred animals have a well-established history of safe use. The goal of this project was to provide empirical data on the development and nutritional composition of animal products derived from the offspring of a genome edited dairy bull, homozygous for the dominant PC Celtic POLLED allele. The bull was crossed with horned Hereford (HH) cows (pp) to obtain five male and one female heterozygous hornless (RC) calves. Hereford, Angus and Holstein bulls were also bred to Hereford cows to produce five HH calves, two polled Angus/Hereford (AH) calves, and three horned Holstein/Hereford (HO) calves (with 25% genetic identity to the hornless offspring), respectively as contemporary controls. Weights were recorded at 8 months, 1 year and slaughter (n = 9–16). Following calving, individual quarters of the RC heifer (RC.calf1), one HO heifer (HO.calf2), two horned HH heifers, and one contemporaneous hornless AH cow (3113) were milked at varying timepoints during the first seven weeks of lactation. Meat samples were collected from the 6 hornless RC calves and 3 horned HO comparator offspring after slaughter. Proximate analysis was conducted for meat and milk samples. Cattle that inherited a POLLED allele from the genome-edited bull showed no differences in their overall growth (Figure 1) or meat composition (Figure 2) when compared to contemporary controls. Milk composition varied between animals and by days in milk (DIM), although values were within the normal range reported in peer-reviewed literature (Figure 3). Bovine milk composition is known to be influenced by breed, nutrition, parity, and DIM, making it difficult to obtain appropriate comparators in experiments with a limited number of GM animals.

Milk losses linked to mastitis treatments at dairy farms with automatic milking systems

Mastitis-associated milk losses in dairy cows have a massive impact on farm profitability and sustainability. In this study, we analyzed milk losses from 4 553 treated mastitis cases as recorded via treatment registers at 41 AMS dairy farms. Milk losses were estimated based on the difference between the expected and the actual production. To estimate the unperturbed lactation curve, we applied an iterative procedure using the Wood model and a variance-dependent threshold on the milk yield residuals. We calculated milk losses both in a fixed window around the first treatment day of each mastitis case and in the perturbations corresponding to this day, at the cow level as well as at the quarter level. In a fixed time window of day -5 to 30 around the first treatment, the absolute median milk losses per case were 101.5 kg, highly dependent on the parity and the lactation stage with absolute milk losses being highest in multiparous cows and at peak lactation. Relative milk losses expressed in percentage were highest on the first treatment day, and full recovery was often not reached within 30 days from treatment onset. In 62 % of the cases, we found a perturbation in milk yield at the cow level at the time of treatment. On average, perturbations started 8.7 days before the first treatment and median absolute milk losses increased to 128 kg of milk per perturbation. Mastitis is not expected to have equal effects on the four quarters so this study additionally investigated losses in the individual udder quarters. We used a data-based method leveraging milk yield and electrical conductivity to project the presumably inflamed quarter. Next, we compared losses with the average of presumably non-inflamed quarters. Median absolute losses in a fixed 36-day window around treatment varied between 50.2 kg for front and 59.3 kg for hind inflamed quarters compared to respectively 24.7 and 26.3 kg for the median losses in the non-inflamed quarters. Also here, these losses differed between lactation stages and parities. Expressed proportionally to expected yield, the relative median milk losses in inflamed quarters on the treatment day were 20 % higher in inflamed quarters with a higher variability and slower recovery. In 86 % of the treated mastitis cases, at least one perturbation was found at the quarter level. This analysis confirms the high impact of mastitis on milk production, and the large variation between quarter losses illustrates the potential of quarter analysis for on-farm monitoring at farms with an automated milking system.

Comparative Analysis of Milk Microbiomes and Their Association with Bovine Mastitis in Two Farms in Central Russia.

Simple SummaryBovine mastitis is one of the most common diseases in cattle farms in Russia. In this work we investigate a microbial composition of milk samples collected from farms of Russian Central Region. Our data revealed significant dominance of several operational taxonomic units corresponding mostly to groups of Staphylococcus aureus, Aerococcus spp. and Streptococcus spp. We identify interesting fact of Staphylococcus and Aerococcus genera seemed to be antagonistic to each other, and the disappearance of the Aerococcus genus in milk microbiota may represent a marker for its transition to a subclinical stage of mastitis.Bovine mastitis is a widespread infectious disease. In addition to the economic damages associated with reduced milk yield due to mastitis, the problem of food contamination by microorganism metabolites, in particular toxins, is also a concern. Horizontal transfer of microorganisms from animal populations to humans can also be complicated by antibiotic resistance. Therefore, bovine mastitis is relevant to the study of microbiology and veterinary medicine. In this study, we investigated the microbiome of milk samples from healthy cows and cows with different forms of mastitis from individual quarters of the udder of cows during first and second lactation. Total DNA was extracted from milk samples. The V3–V4 regions of the bacterial 16S rRNA genes from each sample were amplified to generate a library via high-throughput sequencing. We revealed significant dominance of several operational taxonomic units (OTUs) corresponding mostly to groups of Staphylococcus aureus, Aerococcus spp., and Streptococcus spp. In addition, we unexpectedly identified Streptococcus thermophilus in samples with high SCC quantities. We found some infectious agents that characterized summer mastitis. We demonstrated that in Central Russia, mastitis is associated with a wide variety of causal organisms. We observed some differences in the diversity of the two investigated farms. However, we did not find any significant difference among healthy, mastitis and subclinical samples according to their SCC status from either farms by principal component analysis. Linear discriminant analysis effect size (LEfSe) confirmed the presence of several indicator genera in farms from Moscow and the Tula Region. These results confirm the complex bacterial etiology of bovine mastitis.

Not All About the Effort? A Comparison of Playing Intensities During Winning and Losing Game Quarters in Basketball.

To compare peak and average intensities encountered during winning and losing game quarters in basketball players. Eight semiprofessional male basketball players (age = 23.1 [3.8]y) were monitored during all games (N = 18) over 1 competitive season. The average intensities attained in each quarter were determined using microsensors and heart-rate monitors to derive relative values (per minute) for the following variables: PlayerLoad, frequency of high-intensity and total accelerations, decelerations, changes of direction, jumps, and total inertial movement analysis events combined, as well as modified summated-heart-rate-zones workload. The peak intensities reached in each quarter were determined using microsensors and reported as PlayerLoad per minute over 15-second, 30-second, 1-minute, 2-minute, 3-minute, 4-minute, and 5-minute sample durations. Linear mixed models and effect sizes were used to compare intensity variables between winning and losing game quarters. Nonsignificant (P > .05), unclear-small differences were evident between winning and losing game quarters in all variables. During winning and losing game quarters, peak and average intensities were similar. Consequently, factors other than the intensity of effort applied during games may underpin team success in individual game quarters and therefore warrant further investigation.

Technical note: Evaluation of a commercial on-farm milk leukocyte differential tester to identify subclinical mastitis cases in dairy cows

The objective of this study was to validate the precision and accuracy of a milk leukocyte differential tester to identify subclinical mastitis cases in dairy cows. Milk samples from individual quarters (n = 320) of 80 Holstein cows were aseptically collected and analyzed in this study. Each sample was divided into 2 replicate samples after mixing. One replicate was analyzed for somatic cell count (SCC) using the current gold standard of flow cytometry immediately after milking. The second sample was evaluated using the on-farm milk leukocyte differential tester directly after milking, where total leukocyte count (TLC; cells/mL) was obtained. The SCC and TLC were used to calculate somatic cell score (SCS) and TLC score [TLS = log2 (TLC/100,000) + 3]. Two subclinical mastitis thresholds were set: >200,000 (low) and >400,000 (high) cells/mL. First, precision was determined between the 2 methods. Total leukocyte count and calculated TLS from the milk leukocyte differential device were compared with the gold standard using correlation and regression coefficient of determination analyses. Correlation coefficients (r) were 0.97 for TLC and SCC and 0.90 for TLS and SCS. The coefficient of determination for regression (R2) was 0.94 for TLC and SCC and 0.80 for TLS and SCS. Slopes of regression for scores and measures were 0.36 [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.35-0.37] and 0.69 (CI: 0.65-0.73), respectively; both were significantly different from 1. Sensitivity, specificity, and diagnostic accuracy were calculated for correct diagnosis of the 2 SCC thresholds using the gold standard as reference. The sensitivity of the on-farm test was 58% (95% CI: 44 to 71%) and 73% (95% CI: 56 to 86%) for the low and high thresholds, respectively. The specificities for the on-farm test were 100% (95% CI: 99 to 100%) and 100% (95% CI: 98 to 100%) for the low and high thresholds, respectively. Subclinical diagnosis accuracies were 93% (95% CI: 89 to 95%) and 96% (95% CI: 92 to 98%) for the low and high thresholds, respectively. The on-farm milk leukocyte differential tester was precise but not overall accurate for total cell counts; it had high specificity and accuracy for diagnosis compared with a standard diagnostic tool. These results suggest that the tested system is a promising technology to detect subclinical mastitis on-farm.

Long-Term Relationship Between Prices and Exchange Rates

Purpose: This paper aimed to prove the existence of a long-term relationship between prices and exchange rates like that derived from the theory of purchasing power parity. Particular attention has been paid to the possible reasons behind the deviations of exchange rates from the values implied by the parity and to the theoretical justification of this phenomenon. Design/Methodology/Approach: The research was carried out by detailed analysing of the exchange rates of major currencies of the world, the U.S. dollar, the British pound and the Japanese yen related to individual quarters in the 40 years period. The formal empirical verification was made with the use of econometric tools that allow a long-term study of the relationship between stochastic processes. In analyses there were used the OLS estimator and the appropriate regression of USD/JPY/GBP relative to the logarithms of price levels in these countries. The phenomena of the cointegration of rates and prices and the stationarity of real exchange rates were also examined. Findings: Formal verification did not allow the confirmation of the exact relationship of long-term forecast by purchasing power parity. For all the examined exchange rates, the existence of co-integrating relationship was not shown, the relationship which would be fulfilled in spite of short-term deviations from parity. Despite the fact that the study employed data concerning a forty-year time period, the cycles of deviations from the balance path take too long to be able to demonstrate the stationarity of residuals in the cointegration analysis. This hypothetically makes purchasing power parity a very long-term relationship, which in the short-term and medium-term is subject to relatively strong disturbance. Practical implications: This paper analyses and empirically verifies the widely known long-term relationship of purchasing power parity. Moreover, it comes up with the proper economic justification of the results. Originality/Value: The purchasing power parity theory tends to be used by institutions actively creating macroeconomic policies. The research findings may contribute for better understanding of monetary policies in environment of inflation.

Post-war Planning for Urban Cultural Heritage Recovery

The purpose of the research is to present guidelines and recommendations that can contribute to the post-war recovery of urban cultural heritage by a proposed methodology, based on other experiences in the reconstruction and preservation field of historical areas after wars, with the possibility of applying them, as an attempt to regain the features of the old part of the city. We also suggest those suggestions and guidance on three different levels. These guidelines are applicable at three levels: the historic core of the city, neighbourhood level, and individual quarters level. Each level had a specific theme for reconstruction planning that can maintain the city’s particular character during the current circumstances. Many cities have been heavily damaged as a result of the armed conflict in Syria, destroying most of the city’s neighbourhoods, including the historic district. Hence, we present a study of the consequences of this destruction on the historic fabric of the city, and search for the best solutions to give it the needed protection. Finally, the results and recommendations of this research will lead to developing answers to deal with historic centres and historic buildings that have been damaged by the armed conflict and were neglected before the war. The goal of this research is to identify fundamental principles that can lead to a successful reconstruction process while also preserving the city’s cultural identity.

НЕКОТОРЫЕ АСПЕКТЫ ХОЗЯЙСТВЕННОЙ ЖИЗНИ ПРЕДМЕСТЬЯ САЛАЧИК ВО ВТОРОЙ ПОЛОВИНЕ ХIХ - НАЧАЛЕ ХХ В. (ПО МАТЕРИАЛАМ БАХЧИСАРАЙСКОЙ ГОРОДСКОЙ УПРАВЫ)

Study of the historical experience of the city government bodies and the inclusion of townspeople in the new socio-cultural reality is of undoubted scientific interest. This article examines certain aspects of economic and social development of the Salachik suburb in Bakhchisarai based on the analysis of documents from the funds of the State Archives of the Republic of Crimea. Russian historiography achieved certain progress in the coverage of individual quarters and prominent buildings of Salachik. At present research in this direction allows you to focus on previously unexplored issues. The purpose of this article is to examine the economic life of the inhabitants of the suburb in the second half of the ХIХ - early ХХ centuries. The author analyzed the experience of positive and negative interaction between municipal authorities and local residents who took an active part in the destiny of the city. This is illustrated by the example of issuing certificates for the restructuring of residential buildings, concluding lease transactions, solving problems of water supply and violation of city property rights. The author comes to the conclusion that certain success was achieved in solving the economic issues of the Salachik suburb during the specified period of time thanks to the activities of the City Council and private initiative.

Microarray-based detection of resistance genes in coagulase-negative staphylococci isolated from cattle and buffalo with mastitis in Egypt.

The present study aimed to provide a detailed characterization of coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) isolated from cows and buffaloes with mastitis. The study included seventy-five CoNS isolates (60 came from cattle and 15 from buffaloes) originating from 68 individual quarters of 67 dairy cows (53 cattle and 14 buffaloes). The animals belonged to five different small holding dairy herds (n = 140 cows) that show clinical or subclinical mastitis. CoNS isolates were phenotypically characterized using MALDI-TOF-MS and were further genotypically characterized by microarray-based assays. Furthermore, the antimicrobial susceptibility of CoNS strains which carried the mecA gene was examined by broth microdilution. The occurrence of CoNS in the respective five herds was 10.5%, 14.7%, 14.8%, 12.8%, and 9.9%, with an average of 12.4%. Six different CoNS species were identified: S. sciuri (n = 37; 30 from cattle and 7 from buffaloes), S. chromogenes (n = 14; 8 from cattle and 6 from buffaloes), S. haemolyticus (n = 10; nine from cattle and one buffalo), S. xylosus (n = 10; nine from cattle and one buffalo), S. hyicus (n = 2), S. warneri (n = 1), and unidentified CoNS (n = 1). Twenty percent (20%) of CoNS isolates (17.3% of cattle origin) carried at least one antimicrobial resistance gene, while 4% of the isolate including two isolates of S. haemolyticus and one S. warneri of cattle origin carried the mecA gene and were phenotypically identified as methicillin-resistant strains. The genes detected were blaZ (16%), followed by tet(K) (8%), aacA-aphD (4%), aphA3 (2.6%), msr(A) (2.6%), [far1 (2.6%),and fusC (2.6%)], sat (2.6%), and cat (1.3%) conferring resistance to penicillin, tetracycline, gentamicin, neomycin/kanamycin, erythromycin, fusidic acid, streptothricin, and chloramphenicol, respectively. The majority of investigated CoNS strains displayed considerably low prevalence of resistance genes, while resistance to more than three antibiotics was found in S. haemolyticus and S. warneri. Implementing effective preventive measures is, therefore, important for limiting the transmission of CoNS, rather than using antibiotics to control mastitis in bovines.

Short-milking-tube infrared temperature as a subclinical mastitis detection tool in tropical dairy farms

ABSTRACT Objective Our objective was to determine whether the infrared temperature of short-milking-tubes, as an estimator of milk temperature, differs between subclinically mastitic quarters with or without the presence of mastitis pathogens. Materials and Methods Individual mammary quarters (n = 121) with subclinical mastitis from 100 cows in 9 dairy herds in Puerto Rico were evaluated. Infrared images were taken from the short-milking-tube of each experimental quarter at 2 min after milking-unit attachment in 30-s intervals during the milking process. Relative humidity and ambient temperature were recorded at 1-min intervals using thermometer data loggers at the milking parlor during the milking process. Milk samples were collected for bacteriological analysis and SCC quantification. Molecular identification of mastitic pathogens was performed using the PathoProof Mastitis Complete-16 kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Waltham, MA). Results and Discussion The milk temperature, measured through the short-milking-tubes with an infrared camera during the milking process, was greater in mammary gland quarters with presence of mastitic pathogens relative to quarters with no pathogens detected. Hence, the use of infrared thermography might be a useful detection tool to discriminate between subclinically mastitic quarters with or without an active infection in dairy cows. Implications and Applications With more sensitive infrared thermography cameras and sophisticated systems, the infrared temperature of all mammary gland quarters can be collected simultaneously in a single image when imaging the short-milking-tubes as opposed to imaging the skin of the mammary gland, which requires several images to capture the temperature of all 4 quarters.

Pattern of milk yield and immunoglobulin concentration and factors associated with colostrum quality at the quarter level in dairy cows after parturition

First colostrum yield and constituents as well as milk yield during established lactation vary considerably among mammary quarters in dairy cows. However, data on the development of milk yield, IgG concentration, and their distribution per quarter within cows during the first milkings after calving are scarce. We analyzed milk production and IgG concentration at the individual quarter level in 29 multiparous Holstein cows during the first 5 milkings after calving. Cow- and calf-related factors (time interval between calving and first milking, parity number, previous lactation yield, gestation length, dry period length, sex, and birth weight of the calf) potentially affecting first colostrum quality and quantity were assessed. Milking of first colostrum was carried out between 30 and 180 min after parturition. Further milkings were performed twice daily. Quarter milk yield varied between 0.1 and 5.5 kg at the first milking and between 1.4 and 5.1 kg at the fifth milking relative to parturition. Quarter IgG concentration ranged between 18.8 and 106.0 mg/mL at the first milking and between 0.8 and 46.1 mg/mL at the fifth milking. Distribution of milk yield and IgG concentration among quarters was not entirely repeatable during the first 5 successive milkings after parturition; that is, the ranking of quarters changed (intraclass correlation coefficients for quarter milk yield and IgG concentration: 0.64 and 0.79, respectively). The average hourly milk production increased in all quarters, ranging from 0.02 to 0.26 kg/h between the first 2 milkings up to 0.11 to 0.45 kg/h between the fourth and fifth milkings. First colostrum yield was not affected by any of the evaluated cow- and calf-related factors. Quarter colostrum IgG concentration was higher in cows with a higher previous lactation yield, whereas a lower colostrum IgG content was observed in cows with a longer gestation period and consequently heavier calves. In conclusion, milk yield and IgG concentration of individual quarters varied considerably, and their distribution among quarters within cows was moderately repeatable in consecutive milkings and changed partially over time. The decline of IgG concentration was independent of the concomitant increase in milk secretion, with changes occurring at different rates in individual quarters. Our results confirm the independence of the single mammary quarters at the onset of lactation despite an identical exposure to endocrine stimuli.

Bacterial identification, somatic cell count, antimicrobial profile and toxigenic Staphylococcus strains search from mastitic cow milk samples on small farms properties

ABSTRACT: Bovine mastitis has a negative impact on milk production and can pose risks to public health. The present study aimed to evaluate the quality of bovine milk from small farms in the Botucatu/SP region. Somatic cell counts (SCC), identification of pathogens involved in mastitis, and sensitivity antimicrobial profile of staphylococci isolated were performed. The presence of enterotoxin encoding genes in isolates of staphylococci obtained from milk was investigated. Milk samples from individual mammary quarters of cows were submitted to the California mastitis test (CMT) and SCC. Of the 239 dairy cows from 21 dairy herds evaluated (mean = 11.4 animals/property), two cows (0.8%) presented clinical mastitis and 86 (35.9%) subclinical mastitis. Bacterial culture was performed in 177 quarter milk samples. Staphylococci were identified in 55 (31.1%), corynebacteria in 45 (25.4%), streptococci in 25 (14.1%) and coliforms in four (2.3%) milk samples. Average SCC from culture-positive samples was 1598x103 cells/mL, in case of staphylococci was 1362x103 cells/ml, streptococci was 2857x103 cells/mL, corynebacteria was 976x103 cells/mL and in the cases of coliforms 1161x103 cells/mL were obtained. Staphylococci showed a high sensitivity (>95%) to cephalothin, cotrimoxazole, enrofloxacin, and gentamicin, with a 41.2% resistance to penicillin and 11.8% to oxacillin. Both coagulase positive (CPS) and negative staphylococci (CNS) carried genes encoding enterotoxins in 21.6% of the first group and 41.9% in the second. The sea gene was the most detected 45.8% (n=24) between them, followed by seb with 29.2% and sec with 25.0%. The sed gene was not identified. We highlight the potential risk to public health in the possibility of strains of Staphylococcus spp. enterotoxin-producing genes that can cause staphylococcal food poisoning.

Algorithms For Renovation

The multi-factor organizational and economic model developed in the Research and Design center "City Development" is based on a detailed analysis of renovation processes of (new construction–resettlement–demolition) on the scale of the city as a whole and individual quarters; specially formed dynamic databases; synthesis of factors affecting the organization of renovation; comparison of costs and results for economic estimates. The model is designed to solve key problems of optimization and planning of construction, such as determining the total duration of renovation of buildings in Moscow on the specified parameters; calculation of city-wide planned indicators of input–demolition– resettlement by year; determining the order of inclusion of quarters in the renovation process according to various criteria, taking into account the availability of launch sites; determination of structural characteristics of renovation for each quarter (the volume of new construction for resettlement, for the purchase of additional housing by migrants, for migrants from neighboring neighborhoods, the volume of new construction for sale at the real estate market); calculation of economic and financial indicators of the investment renovation project. To solve each problem, special algorithms have been developed to transform the planning from a set of random solutions in a clear calculation of the organizational and economic model.

Видове різноманіття вищих судинних рослин свіжих борів природного заповідника «Древлянський»

Preservation of species diversity is one of the key tasks of the natural reserve objects, in particular case, the natural reserve "Drevlyansky`s" task. A study was conducted on the territory of the “Drevlyansky” Nature Reserve in June 2019 in order to improve the quality of species diversity monitoring, of the vascular plants species composition. 18 divisions of 6 quarters of Narodichy Forestry were investigated, as a result of research the vascular plants species composition of forests with type A2 (Fresh Bars) of Rossochovsky department was determined and analysed. 14 species of vascular plants belonging to 14 genuses and 10 families were identified and systematized, among which the most populous is the Poaceae family, which includes 5 genera and 5 species. The dominant specie – Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth was determined, on the basis of numerical accounting. The total index of domination of Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) is 0.1827. A definite general index of the species diversity of Margaleff, is 1.6385 for the fresh forests of the Razokhovsky branch and the indices of the diversity of the individual quarters studied, also calculated. The results of the study will be used for further researches of the species diversity of the nature reserve and the identification of the basic patterns in the formation of fito–groups and the study of species composition and population numbers dynamics on the territory of the nature reserve "Drevlyansky", as well as the development of measures for the conservation and restoration of natural reserve "Drevlyansky&quot

A Cohort Study of the Milk Microbiota of Healthy and Inflamed Bovine Mammary Glands From Dryoff Through 150 Days in Milk.

The objective of this longitudinal cohort study was to describe the milk microbiota of dairy cow mammary glands based on inflammation status before and after the dry period. Individual mammary quarters were assigned to cohorts based on culture results and somatic cell count (SCC) at dryoff and twice in the first 2 weeks post-calving. Mammary glands that were microbiologically negative and had low SCC (< 100,000 cells/mL) at all 3 sampling periods were classified as Healthy (n = 80). Microbiologically negative mammary glands that had SCC ≥150,000 cells/mL at dryoff and the first post-calving sample were classified as Chronic Culture-Negative Inflammation (CHRON; n = 17). Quarters that did not have both culture-negative milk and SCC ≥ 150,000 cells/mL at dryoff but were culture-negative with SCC ≥ 150,000 at both post-calving sampling periods were classified as Culture-Negative New Inflammation (NEWINF; n = 6). Mammary glands with bacterial growth and SCC ≥ 150,000 cells/mL at all 3 periods were classified as Positive (POS; n = 3). Milk samples were collected from all enrolled quarters until 150 days in milk and subjected to microbiota analysis. Milk samples underwent total DNA extraction, a 40-cycle PCR to amplify the V4 region of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene, and next-generation sequencing. Healthy quarters had the lowest rate of PCR and sequencing success (53, 67, 83, and 67% for Healthy, CHRON, NEWINF, and POS, respectively). Chao richness was greatest in milk collected from Healthy quarters and Shannon diversity was greater in milk from Healthy and CHRON quarters than in milk collected from glands in the NEWINF or POS cohorts. Regardless of cohort, season was associated with both richness and diversity, but stage of lactation was not. The most prevalent OTUs included typical gut- and skin-associated bacteria such as those in the phylum Bacteroidetes and the genera Enhydrobacter and Corynebacterium. The increased sequencing success in quarters with worse health outcomes, combined with the lack of bacterial growth in most samples and the high PCR cycle number required for amplification of bacterial DNA, suggests that the milk microbiota of culture-negative, healthy mammary glands is less abundant than that of culture-negative glands with a history of inflammation.

Method for short-term prediction of milk yield at the quarter level to improve udder health monitoring

Udder health problems are often associated with milk losses. These losses are different between quarters, as infected quarters are affected both by systemic and pathogen-specific local effects, whereas noninfected quarters are only subject to systemic effects. To gain insight in these losses and the milk yield dynamics during disease, it is essential to have a reliable reference for quarter-level milk yield in an unperturbed state, mimicking its potential yield. We developed a novel methodology to predict this quarter milk yield per milking session, using an historical data set of 504 lactations collected on a test farm by an automated milking system from DeLaval (Tumba, Sweden). Using a linear mixed model framework in which covariates associated with the linearized Wood model and the milking interval are included, we were able to describe quarter-level yield per milking session with a proportional error below 10%. Applying this model enables us to predict the milk yield of individual quarters 1 to 50 d ahead with a mean prediction error ranging between 8 and 20%, depending on the amount of historical data available to estimate the random effect covariates for the predicted lactation. The developed methodology was illustrated using 2 examples for which quarter-level milk losses are calculated during clinical mastitis. These showed that the quarter-level mixed model allows us to gain insight in quarter lactation dynamics and enables to calculate milk losses in different situations.

Electrical conductivity of milk as related to daily milk yield of udder quarters in automatically milked cows

The aim of the study was to determine the frequency of udders with specific levels of milk electrical conductivity and milk yield in primiparous and multiparous cows. Relationships between the health and milk yield of individual udder quarters in the primiparous and multiparous cows were also analysed. The left and right front quarters constituted, respectively, 67.39 and 67.90% of the quarters from which milk with electrical conductivity ≤5.50 mS/ cm was drawn. In the conductivity class &gt;7.00 mS/cm, the right and left rear quarters showed the highest proportions (9.59 and 7.13%, respectively). Individual udder quarters from the cows most often produced either less than 7.00 kg or more than 10.00 kg milk per day. These differences concerned the front and rear udders. In the first two classes of milk electrical conductivity, the frequency of individual udder quarters in the primiparous and multiparous cows was similar. For milk with the lowest electrical conductivity, the values ranged from 50.38% (front left) to 52.62% (rear left) in primiparous cows, and from 47.38% (rear left) to 49.62% (front left) in multiparous cows. As the health of the mammary gland deteriorated, daily milk production of all its quarters was observed to decrease. A more marked reaction to this condition was observed in the front quarters, the yield of which decreased by 3.40 kg (left) and 3.02 kg (right). The rear left quarters decreased their yield by 2.85 kg/day, and the rear right ones by 2.18 kg/day. Higher production levels in all mammary quarters and in every milk electrical conductivity class were noted in the multiparous cows. The increasing milk electrical conductivity was paralleled by a lower daily milk yield of the udder quarters in both primiparous and multiparous cows. For the front left and right quarters, this decrease was 2.77 and 2.41 kg in the youngest cows, and 4.27 and 4.26 kg in the older cows. The decrease in milk production from the rear left quarters was 2.67 kg/day in primiparous and 3.76 kg/day in multiparous cows; the respective values for the rear right quarters were 2.01 and 3.86 kg milk/day.

Intramammary 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 treatment modulates innate immune responses to endotoxin-induced mastitis

Vitamin D signaling in response to pathogen-associated molecules contributes to activation of innate immune responses of bovine monocytes. We hypothesized that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of bacteria associated with mastitis in dairy cows activates the vitamin D pathway in innate immune cells of the udder and that increasing availability of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 [25(OH)D3] would augment expression of vitamin D-associated genes. The objective of this experiment was to determine the effects of intramammary LPS and 25(OH)D3 treatments on activation of the vitamin D pathway and innate immune responses of mammary immune cells. Individual mammary quarters of 5 lactating cows were treated with placebo control, 100 μg of 25(OH)D3, 5 μg of LPS, or a combination of 100 μg of 25(OH)D3 and 5 μg of LPS. Somatic cells from milk were evaluated for percentage of neutrophil and macrophage populations and expression of genes associated with vitamin D metabolism and innate immunity. Data from samples collected from 4 to 12 h after challenge were analyzed for main effects of LPS and 25(OH)D3 treatments, treatment interactions, and simple effects of 25(OH)D3 treatment. Data from samples collected at the time of challenge were used as covariates. The percentages of neutrophils in milk at 8 h postchallenge were 58 ± 10, 82 ± 11, 89 ± 10, and 63 ± 10% of total cells in milk from control, 25(OH)D3, LPS, and LPS plus 25(OH)D3 glands, respectively, such that the interaction of LPS and 25(OH)D3 was significant. Expression of the vitamin D 1α-hydroxylase (CYP27B1) and vitamin D receptor genes was upregulated by LPS treatment in total cells, macrophages, and neutrophils in milk. In addition, expression of the vitamin D 24-hydroxylase (CYP24A1) gene in milk somatic cells was upregulated by 25(OH)D3 and LPS treatments. The inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), chemokine (C-C-motif) ligand 5 (CCL5), β-defensin 3 (DEFB3), DEFB7, and DEFB10 genes were upregulated by LPS treatment in total cells and neutrophils from milk. Expression of iNOS in milk somatic cells tended to be affected by the interaction between LPS and 25(OH)D3, such that 25(OH)D3 tended to increase iNOS in the absence of LPS but not in the presence of LPS. Furthermore, expression of CCL5 in macrophages was downregulated by 25(OH)D3. In conclusion, intramammary endotoxin challenge activates the vitamin D pathway in mammary macrophages and neutrophils, and intramammary 25(OH)D3 treatment alters the percentage of neutrophils and expression of immune genes in milk somatic cells.

Review on California Mastitis Test (CMT)

The California Mastitis Test (CMT) is a quick, simple test that accurately predicts the somatic cell count of milk from individual quarters or on composite milk samples [1]. The California Mastitis Test is a simple, inexpensive, rapid screening test for mastitis. The test is based upon the amount of cellular nuclear protein present in the milk sample. Since inflammatory cells associated with mastitis are the predominant cell type present in milk the CMT reflects the SCC level quite accurately and is a rel iable indicator of the severity of infection. The test is appropriate for cow - side evaluation of udder health and the procedure can be taught quickly to producers and the milking crew. With proper training test results are very repeatable among those condu cting the test. It is necessary that producers also be made aware of the limitations of the CMT and the proper application of management decisions based on CMT results.