Individual Differences In Tendency Research Articles

A future beyond ourselves: Self-oriented prospection predicts increased intergenerational responsibility

Do differences in how people think about their own futures predict responsibility for the collective future welfare of humanity? Across a reanalysis of existing data, four primary studies, six supplemental studies, and an internal meta-analysis (NTotal = 11,261 US participants), we investigate how individual differences in self-oriented prospection relate to intergenerational responsibility, elucidating theoretical and practical implications for the psychologies of future-thinking and intergenerational ethics alike. We consistently observe an association between Future Self-Continuity (FSC; variation in the amount of perceived overlap between people's present and future self-concept) and Consideration of Future Consequences (CFC; individual differences in tendencies to consider how present actions impact one's own future life outcomes) with increased feelings of responsibility for, perceived efficacy to impact, and identification with future generations. Drawing upon insights from behavioral economics, Construal Level Theory, and research on moral expansiveness, our results begin to reconcile the literatures studying the adaptive functions of self-oriented prospection with disparate lines of inquiry into the individual differences that mitigate tendencies to prioritize present over future generations. Moreover, the present findings open new avenues for further research to explore potential practical benefits of self-oriented prospection for bolstering efforts to improve long-term collective welfare.

Neuroendocrine and psychophysiological investigation of the evolutionary roots of gossip

This study investigates an evolutionary hypothesis of gossip postulating that in humans it serves a similar function as social grooming in other primates. It examines whether gossip decreases physiological markers of stress and increases markers of positive emotionality and sociability. Dyads of friends (N = 66) recruited at the university, participated in an experiment where they experienced a stressor followed by social interaction (gossip or control task). Individual levels of salivary cortisol and beta-endorphins were assessed at before and after social interactions. Sympathetic activity and parasympathetic activity were monitored throughout the experiment. Individual differences in Tendency and Attitude towards Gossip were investigated as potential covariates. Gossip condition was characterized with increased sympathetic and parasympathetic activity, but did not differ in cortisol or beta-endorphins levels. However, high Tendency to Gossip was associated with decreases in cortisol. Gossip was shown to be more emotionally salient than non-social talk, but the evidence with regard to lowering stress was not sufficient to support an analogy to social grooming.

Molecular genetic associations between a prominent serotonin transporter gene polymorphism (5-HTTLPR/rs25531) and individual differences in tendencies toward autistic traits and generalized internet use disorder in China and Germany.

BackgroundThe serotonin transporter polymorphism 5‐HTTLPR is an extensively investigated genetic marker of autistic traits or autism spectrum disorder, and recently has also been studied in the realm of internet use disorder (IUD), yet the findings remain controversial. Therefore, the present study aimed to explore associations between 5‐HTTLPR (also including SNP rs25531) and autistic traits/IUD tendencies and to assess whether the relationship between autistic traits and IUD tendencies varies by this genetic marker in participants from China and Germany.MethodsA total of 540 Chinese and 563 German subjects were genotyped for 5‐HTTLPR/rs25531 and completed the Adult Autism Spectrum Quotient questionnaire and the short version of the Internet Addiction Test.ResultsCarriers of the low expressing S'S’ genotype (S, LG) showed significantly higher levels of autistic traits than the high expressing allele (e.g. LA) carriers in both samples. There was no significant effect of 5‐HTTLPR/rs25531 on IUD either in the Chinese or Germany samples, whereas positive correlations between autistic traits and IUD varied by 5‐HTTLPR/rs25531 genotypes and also differed between Chinese and German samples. In the Chinese sample, positive correlations were mainly driven by S'S’ and S'L' carriers, while they were mainly determined by S'L’ and L'L' carriers in the German sample. Further analyses revealed that the associations between autistic traits and IUD tended in parts to be more strongly pronounced in the complete German sample compared to the complete Chinese sample, and also varied depending on 5‐HTTLPR/rs25531 genotypes (in S'S’ carriers: China > Germany; in S'L’ and L'L’ carriers: China < Germany; both in terms of more positive associations).ConclusionsOur findings suggest carriers of low expressing alleles (S, LG) are more likely to show higher autistic traits in both Chinese and German samples. Furthermore, the present work shows that both 5‐HTTLPR/rs25531 and cultural differences might be of relevance to understand associations between autistic traits and IUD tendencies, but this needs to be further backed up.

Mining Digital Traces of Facebook Activity for the Prediction of Individual Differences in Tendencies Toward Social Networks Use Disorder: A Machine Learning Approach.

More than three billion users are currently on one of Meta’s online platforms with Facebook being still their most prominent social media service. It is well known that Facebook has designed a highly immersive social media service with the aim to prolong online time of its users, as this results in more digital footprints to be studied and monetized (via psychological targeting). In this context, it is debated if social media platforms can elicit addictive behaviors. In the present work, we demonstrate in N = 1,094 users that it is possible to predict from digital footprints of the Facebook users their self-reported addictive tendencies toward social media (R > 0.30) by applying machine-learning strategies. More specifically, we analyzed the predictive power of a set of models based on different sets of features extracted from digital traces, namely posting activity, language use, and page Likes. To maximize the predictive power of the models, we used an ensemble of linear and non-linear prediction algorithms. This work showed also sufficient accuracy rates (AUC above 0.70) in distinguishing between disordered and non-disordered social media users. In sum, individual differences in tendencies toward “social networks use disorder” can be inferred from digital traces left on the social media platform Facebook. Please note that the present work is limited by its cross-sectional design.

Investigating Links Between Fear of COVID-19, Neuroticism, Social Networks Use Disorder, and Smartphone Use Disorder Tendencies.

The present study investigates links between fear of COVID-19, the personality trait of neuroticism, social networks use disorder, and smartphone use disorder (SNUD and SmUD, respectively) tendencies. In an online survey, N = 932 participants recruited at a Chinese University (237 males and 695 females) completed self-reports on fear of COVID-19, neuroticism (and other personality traits from the Big Five Inventory-44), the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (assessing tendencies toward SNUD), and the Smartphone Addiction Scale short version—assessing individual differences in tendencies toward SmUD.Our findings showed that all variables of main interest were positively correlated with each other. A mediation model suggested that SNUD (in parts) mediated the association between fear of COVID-19 and SmUD. Although neuroticism was robustly correlated with all mentioned variables, no moderation effect could be observed on the investigated fear-of-COVID-19-SNUD-link.The findings of this work provide further evidence that the smartphone itself is only a device giving individuals access to software applications, which might be excessively used. Beyond that, the present data indicate neuroticism to be a risk factor with respect to fear of COVID-19, SNUD, and SmUD, although the study is limited by its cross-sectional study design.

Propensities to make attributions to prejudice and (mis)perceptions of racism in the context of police shootings

We examined whether individual differences in tendencies to perceive prejudice are related to the (mis)perception of racial discrimination. Participants were presented with either strong or weak evidence of racism in a scenario involving a White police officer shooting a Black man. Lower levels of tendencies to perceive prejudice were related to underperceiving racism when the evidence was strong. However, we found no evidence that higher levels of tendencies to perceive prejudice were related to overperceiving racism when the evidence was weak. These findings suggest believing racial prejudice is uncommon creates more biased perceptions of racism than believing prejudice is pervasive.

Chapter 27 - Molecular genetics of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides involved in Internet use disorders including first insights on a potential role of hypothalamus’ oxytocin hormone

This chapter covers the phenomenon of Internet use disorders (IUDs) and putative associations with different neurotransmitter and neuropeptide systems. Genes coding for such messengers can be seen as an important starting point in the complicated quest to understand human behavior including new phenomena such as IUDs. Therefore, a special focus of this chapter will lie on individual differences in molecular genetic underpinnings of neurotransmitter and neuropeptide systems and their associations with individual differences in tendencies towards IUDs. By shedding light on these associations, putative predisposing molecular genetic factors for the emergence and maintenance of IUDs can be carved out. Therefore, first an introduction to IUDs and a model that can guide research on putative associations of IUDs with different specific neurotransmitters and neuropeptides will be presented. Subsequently, twin studies on the heritability of IUDs are reviewed. Finally, studies on differences in molecular genetic predispositions and their associations with differences in IUDs will be presented and discussed, including targets related to the dopaminergic and serotonergic system as well as the hypothalamic neuropeptide oxytocin. The chapter closes with a conclusion about what is already known and what needs to be investigated in future studies to gain further insights into putative associations between molecular genetic markers and IUDs.

Anxiety-Related Coping Styles, Social Support, and Internet Use Disorder.

Objective: The Internet can offer a seemingly safe haven for those being disappointed by relationships in the “offline world”. Although the Internet can provide lonely people with opportunities to seek for help and support online, complete withdrawal from the offline world comes with costs. It is discussed if people can even become “addicted” to the Internet. Of note, meanwhile, many researchers prefer the term Internet use disorder (IUD) instead of using the term “Internet addiction”. To illustrate the importance of one’s own social network supporting a person in everyday life, we investigated, for the first time to our knowledge, how social resources in terms of quality and quantity might represent a buffer against the development of IUD. Furthermore, anxiety related coping styles are investigated as a further independent variable likely impacting on the development of an IUD. Method: In the present work, N = 567 participants (n = 164 males and n = 403 females; Mage = 23.236; SDage = 8.334) filled in a personality questionnaire assessing individual differences in cognitive avoidant and vigilant anxiety processing, ergo, traits describing individual differences in everyday coping styles/modes. Moreover, all participants provided information on individual differences in tendencies toward IUD, the perceived quality of social support received, and the size of their social network (hence a quantity measure). Results: Participants with larger social networks and higher scores in the received social support reported the lowest tendencies toward IUD in our data. A vigilant coping style was positively correlated with tendencies toward IUD, whereas no robust associations could be observed between a cognitive avoidant coping style and tendencies toward IUD. Hierarchical linear regression underlined an important predictive role of the interaction term of vigilance in ego-threat scenarios and perceived quality of social support. Conclusion: The current study not only yields support for the hypothesis that the size of one’s own social network as well as the perceived quality of social support received in everyday life present putative resilience factors against developing IUD. It also supports the approach that special coping styles are needed to make use of the social support offered.

Savage or satire: Individual differences in perceptions of disparaging and subversive racial humor

Subversive racial humor intends to confront and challenge racist beliefs to subvert traditional status hierarchies. However, because of its racial content, such humor can be misconstrued as disparaging. To understand why, we examined how individual differences relate to perceptions of disparaging and subversive racial humor. In three studies (Ns = 204, 134, and 200), college students and MTurk workers completed established measures of individual differences in tendencies to perceive racial prejudice (Studies 1–3), motivations to suppress racial prejudice (Study 3), and modern racism (Study 3), and responded to examples of disparaging or subversive racial humor. General tendencies to perceive racial prejudice were associated with more negative reactions to disparaging humor (e.g., perceiving it as less funny and more racist) and more positive reactions to subversive humor (e.g., perceiving it as more funny and more antiracist). Individual differences in motivations to suppress racial prejudice showed similar patterns, and modern racism showed opposite patterns. In general, our findings suggest that although subversive racial humor can be misconstrued, believing racial prejudice is pervasive and problematic is associated with a greater understanding and appreciation of subversive racial humor, an increasingly prevalent social phenomenon that requires further empirical attention.

Tactile evaluation and individual difference analysis focused on temporal change

Tactile sensation changes with time, there are individual differences in tendency of temporal change of tactile sensation. However, there are no research examples that evaluate and analyze tactile sensations as time series data. In this study, subjective assessment of skin lotion was carried out using the Temporal Check-All-That-Apply (TCATA) method to measure tactile sensation data of time series. We also analyzed individual differences in time series data using cluster analysis. As a result, four groups were classified from 39 participants, and each of the four clusters showed a different tendency of temporal change of tactile sensation.

Individual differences in tendencies to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and emotionality: empirical evidence in young healthy adults from Germany and China.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity but also by negative emotionality. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether subclinical ADHD tendencies are associated with negative emotionality in healthy adult samples. The present study is of special interest since it investigated negative emotionality with a questionnaire anchored in Neuroscience Theory-the Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales (ANPS). Furthermore, through the investigation of samples in two countries, namely Germany and China, the study aims to replicate the results across different cultures. German (n = 377; age: M = 23.25, SD = 8.47; 117 males) and Chinese (n = 389; age: M = 20.74, SD = 2.47; 279 males) subjects completed ANPS (primary emotional traits) and ASRS (ADHD tendencies) questionnaires in an online survey. Principal component analysis of the ANPS revealed one factor for negative emotionality and one factor for positive emotionality. Partial correlations between ANPS and ASRS (controlled for age) were conducted separately for nation and gender. The same correlation patterns between ADHD tendencies and negative emotionality could be found in male and female German/Chinese participants (range r= .189 to r = .352). Higher negative emotionality was always significantly associated with more inattentive, hyperactive/impulsive, or combined tendencies. However, significant negative correlations between ADHD tendencies and positive emotionality could only be observed in Chinese males (range r = - .264 to r = - .296). The results are in line with former findings in children and show that also in healthy adults, associations between negative emotionality and ADHD tendencies are robustly visible. The results were independent of the cultural background, indicating a general association between ADHD tendencies and negative emotionality, even in healthy adults.

The COMT Val158Met Polymorphism and Reaction to a Transgression: Findings of Genetic Associations in Both Chinese and German Samples.

After a transgression, people often either tend to avoid the transgressor or seek revenge. These tendencies can be investigated via a trait approach and surprisingly little is known about their biological underpinnings. One promising candidate gene polymorphism, which may influence individual differences in avoidance of a transgressor and vengefulness, is the COMT Val158Met (rs4680) polymorphism known to affect dopaminergic signaling and among others brain activity in situations in which people punish others for their behavior. We therefore investigated the molecular genetics of individual differences in Avoidance Motivation and vengefulness with a focus on this polymorphism. Possible genetic associations were first investigated in a sample of N = 730 Chinese participants (n = 196 females) using buccal cells to extract the DNA for genotyping. To replicate the findings we carried out a parallelized investigation in a sample of N = 585 German participants (n = 399 females). Chinese and German versions of the TRIM-12 and the Vengeance Scale were implemented to assess individual differences in tendencies to react to a transgression. Results show that Met allele carriers of the COMT Val158Met polymorphism (Val/Met and Met/Met) score significantly higher on the tendency to avoid a transgressor in the Chinese male and female samples, with an especially pronounced effect in the female subgroup. The same effect could be found in the German sample, again especially in females. Additionally, carrying a Met allele was associated with higher vengefulness in the Chinese sample only, especially in males. The present findings indicate that the COMT Val158Met polymorphism might influence individual differences in the motivation to avoid transgressors across cultures, especially in females. However, its association with vengefulness seems to be more complex and may exhibit some cultural and gender specific effects.

Brain Structural Bases of Tendency to Forgive: evidence from a young adults sample using voxel-based morphometry

Tendency to forgive refers to one’s global dispositional level of forgiveness across situations and relationships. Brain imaging studies examined activation patterns underlying forgiving response, yet focal differences in brain structures related to tendency to forgive have never been investigated. In this study, voxel-based morphometry was used to investigate relations between gray matter/white matter volume (GMV/WMV) and individual differences in tendency to forgive in a large young sample. Participants were 199 young students (60 men) who completed the tendency to forgive scale (TTF) and underwent an anatomical magnetic resonance imaging scan. Results showed that higher TTF scores were associated with larger GMV in the regions of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and smaller GMV in the regions of the right insular cortex and inferior frontal gyrus (IFG). Moreover, higher TTF scores were also related to smaller WMV in the regions of the left IFG. Together, these findings suggest structural variations for individual differences in the tendency to forgive, distributed across different brain regions associated with empathic response and cognitive control.

Role of Psychosocial Factors in Criminal Behaviour in Adults in India

IntroductionCriminal behaviour is any behaviour or act that is in violation of the criminal law, whereas crime is the particular action representing such behaviour (Kamaluddin, Shariff, Othman, Ismail, & Ayu, 2015). is not itself, or criminality that is innate; it is certain peculiarities of the central and autonomic nervous system that react with the environment, with upbringing, and many other environmental factors to increase the probability that a given person would act in a certain antisocial manner (Eysenck & Gudjonsson, 1989) (Bartol & Bartol, 2005). The impact of the interaction of these factors has been found in a few studies; however this remains an area that requires more research. The influence of family, personality, neighbourhood, socio economic status, peers and education has been focused upon.Psychological FactorsPsychological factors encompass processes that take place at the individual-level as well as the meanings that one attributes to a particular situation which in turn affects our mental state (Upton, 2013). Cesare Lombroso (1810) viewed criminality as a product of abnormal psychological traits. This view was elaborated further by Hans Eysenck. Traits are more deterministic in nature as they are dimensions of individual differences in tendencies to show consistent patterns of thoughts, feelings and actions (Kamaluddin, Shariff, Othman, Ismail, & Ayu, 2015). Eysenck, in his theory of criminality, proposed that personality factors like extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism are the prime causes of criminal behaviour and are the only systematic method available for the investigation of such behaviour. Personality traits contribute to one's tendency to engage in criminal behaviour (Levine & Jackson, 2004; Egan, McMurran, Richardson, & Blair, 2000; Listwan, 2001). He proposed that high neuroticism leads to higher persistence in people which makes crime a matter of routine that is continuously reinforced. The combined effect of high extraversion and high neuroticism interferes with learning social rules and conditioning, increasing the likelihood of criminal behaviour (Levine & Jackson, 2004). Psychoticism is believed to increase the rigidity of thought in a person and reduce sensitivity to guilt. The traits that correlate to form this super-ordinate trait include aggressive, cold, egocentric, impersonal, impulsive, antisocial, unempathetic, creative and tough minded (Ruch, n.d.)Additional evidence of the role of underlying personality factors in criminal behaviour is provided by the Five Factor Model proposed by McCrae and Costa (1988) which represents a continuum between two extremes of these traits. It was found that neuroticism has shown positive correlation with criminal acts which is consistent with the findings of Eysenck' PEN Model. McCrae and Costa found that Eysenck's measure of P was related to the Big Five factors, Conscientiousness and Agreeableness (Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Joircman, Tcta, & Kraft, 1993). In addition to personality factors, other individual variables like intelligence, emotional behaviour and academic achievements also determine the chances of an individual to indulge in criminal behaviour (Clarbour, Roger, Miles, & Monaghan, 2009; Koolhof, Loeber, Wei, Pardini, & D'Escury, 2007).Listwan (2001) in her research supported the notion that personality is an important risk factor and can assist our understanding of offenders both theoretically as an explanation for behaviour and practically for the application of treatment. Despite the firm theoretical base of Eysenck's theory in understanding criminal behaviour, situationalist theorists have often targeted its reliability. Theorists argue that behaviour varies not because of personality traits but due to the situation one is in and the characteristics of that situation (Smallbone & Cale, n.d.). Knowing the various circumstances, then, which may foster criminal behaviour is essential to be cognizant ofSocial FactorsSocial factors encompass those that are present in the society and influence the individual by their structure and course (Upton, 2013). …

An Affective Neuroscience Framework for the Molecular Study of Internet Addiction.

Internet addiction represents an emerging global health issue. Increasing efforts have been made to characterize risk factors for the development of Internet addiction and consequences of excessive Internet use. During the last years, classic research approaches from psychology considering personality variables as vulnerability factor, especially in conjunction with neuroscience approaches such as brain imaging, have led to coherent theoretical conceptualizations of Internet addiction. Although such conceptualizations can be valuable aid, the research field is currently lacking a comprehensive framework for determining brain-based and neurochemical markers of Internet addiction. The present work aims at providing a framework on the molecular level as a basis for future research on the neural and behavioral level, in order to facilitate a comprehensive neurobiological model of Internet addiction and its clinical symptomatology. To help establish such a molecular framework for the study of Internet addiction, we investigated in N = 680 participants associations between individual differences in tendencies toward Internet addiction measured by the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale-2 (GPIUS-2) and individual differences in primary emotional systems as assessed by the Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales (ANPS). Regression analysis revealed that the ANPS scales FEAR and SADNESS were the ANPS scales most robustly positively linked to several (sub)scales of the GPIUS-2. Also the scales SEEKING, CARE and PLAY explain variance in some of the GPIUS-2 subscales. As such, these scales are negatively linked to the GPIUS-2 subscales. As the ANPS has been constructed on substantial available brain data including an extensive molecular body with respect to evolutionary highly conserved emotional circuitry in the ancient mammalian brain, the present study gives first ideas on putative molecular mechanisms underlying different facets of Internet addiction as derived from associations between tendencies toward Internet addiction and individual differences in primary emotional systems. For example, as SADNESS is linked to the overall GPIUS-2 score, and the neuropeptide oxytocin is known to downregulate SADNESS, it is conceivable that the neuropeptide might play a role in Internet addition on the molecular level. Our findings provide a theoretical framework potentially illuminating the molecular underpinnings of Internet addiction. Finally, we also present data on the ANPS and smartphone addiction at the end of the paper. Similar to the reported associations between the ANPS and the GPIUS-2, these correlations might provide an initial outline for a framework guiding future studies that aim to address the molecular basis of smartphone addiction.

THE PROS AND CONS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSONALITY AND LEADERSHIP OR MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOR OF NURSING MANAGER

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Additive and Synergetic Contributions of Neuroticism and Life Events to Depression and Anxiety in Women

In this genetically informative and longitudinal study of women, we investigated the nature of individual differences in tendencies to depression (TD) and anxiety (TA) as well as in the probability to develop unipolar mood disorders (UMDs), anxiety disorders (ADs) or both. Specifically, we examined the roles of neuroticism, negative and positive life events and their interplay as heritable and environmental factors of variance in TD and TA. Cross–sectional data from a total of 1200 women including 232 patients (suffering from UMDs and/or ADs) and longitudinal data from 630 female twins including 260 complete pairs were analysed. The analyses yielded that variance in neuroticism mediated the vast majority of the genetic variance in both TD (about 85–90%) and TA (about 70–75%). Negative life events additionally contributed as risk factors accounting for common and specific environmental variance in both TD and TA, whereas positive life events only acted as protective factors in the case of TD. Moreover, TD but not TA was associated with both the probability of exposure and the sensitivity to negative life events and a negative life–event balance (i.e. more negative than positive experiences). The results were discussed within the framework of additive, dynamic and synergetic diathesis–stress models. Copyright © 2016 European Association of Personality Psychology

Development and Validation of the Japanese-Translated Version of the Personal Need for Structure Scale

Personal need for structure (PNS) refers to individual differences in tendency to structure huge amounts of information into a simplified form, and was frequently examined in previous research in association with strategies for reducing cognitive load and with creativity. The present research developed a new Japanese-translated version of the PNS Scale (PNS-J) and conducted two surveys with samples of Japanese university students to validate the PNS-J. Study 1 (N = 244) examined internal consistency and factor structure of the PNS-J. Although the Response to Lack of Structure subscale and the total 11 items had sufficient internal consistency (α = .73, .76, respectively), the Desire for Structure subscale had a smaller value for internal consistency (α = .55). Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the two-factor model of the PNS-J fit the data better than the one-factor model, as shown in the studies that validated the original PNS Scale. Study 2 conducted assessments at two time points (T1 and T2) to examine correlations between the PNS-J and other related variables, and to evaluate test-retest reliability of the PNS-J with a 4-week interval. Analyses using the T1 dataset (N = 354) provided convergent evidence of validity with big-five personality traits and discriminant evidence with need for cognition. Analyses using both the T1 and the T2 dataset (N = 245) showed that both the Desire for Structure subscale (r = .67, p

Cued to Act on Impulse: More Impulsive Choice and Risky Decision Making by Women Susceptible to Overeating after Exposure to Food Stimuli.

There is increasing evidence that individual differences in tendency to overeat relate to impulsivity, possibly by increasing reactivity to food-related cues in the environment. This study tested whether acute exposure to food cues enhanced impulsive and risky responses in women classified on tendency to overeat, indexed by scores on the three factor eating questionnaire disinhibition (TFEQ-D), restraint (TFEQ-R) and hunger scales. Ninety six healthy women completed two measures of impulsive responding (delayed discounting, DDT and a Go No-Go, GNG, task) and a measure of risky decision making (the balloon analogue risk task, BART) as well as questionnaire measures of impulsive behaviour either after looking at a series of pictures of food or visually matched controls. Impulsivity (DDT) and risk-taking (BART) were both positively associated with TFEQ-D scores, but in both cases this effect was exacerbated by prior exposure to food cues. No effects of restraint were found. TFEQ-D scores were also related to more commission errors on the GNG, while restrained women were slower on the GNG, but neither effect was modified by cue exposure. Overall these data suggest that exposure to food cues act to enhance general impulsive responding in women at risk of overeating and tentatively suggest an important interaction between tendency for impulsive decision making and food cues that may help explain a key underlying risk factor for overeating.

Unsigned value prediction-error modulates the motor system in absence of choice

Human actions are driven by the pursuit of goals, especially when achieving these goals entails a reward. Accordingly, recent work showed that anticipating a reward in a motor task influences the motor system, boosting motor excitability and increasing overall readiness. Attaining a reward typically requires some mental or physical effort. Recent neuroimaging evidence suggested that both reward expectation and effort requirements are encoded by a partially overlapping brain network. Moreover, reward and effort information are combined in an integrative value signal. However, whether and how mental effort is integrated with reward at the motor level during task preparation remains unclear. To address these issues, we implemented a mental effort task where reward expectation and effort requirements were manipulated. During task preparation, TMS was delivered on the motor cortex and motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) were recorded on the right hand muscles to probe motor excitability. The results showed an interaction of effort and reward in modulating the motor system, reflecting an unsigned value prediction-error signal. Crucially, this was observed in the motor system in absence of a value-based decision or value-driven action selection. This suggests a high-level cognitive factor such as unsigned value prediction-error can modulate the motor system. Interestingly, effort-related motor excitability was also modulated by individual differences in tendency to engage in (and enjoy) mental effort, as measured by the Need for Cognition questionnaire, underlining a role of subjective effort experience in value-driven preparation for action.