Even the European Union is the international leader regarding the energy transition, the consumers are increasingly affected by overlapping crises affecting income levels and energy prices, as the geopolitical context has become more volatile. The energy poverty is a complex problem that is intricately linked to social, political, and economic elements like low income, skyrocketing energy prices, and inefficient housing. In addition to restricting comfort and well-being, energy poverty exacerbates social inequality, has serious health effects, and impedes the development of a fair and sustainable energy transition. The European Union and its Member States have taken strong action to reduce energy poverty through focused policies and initiatives in recognition of the seriousness of this issue and to assure the access to energy and to improve the energy resilience . Significant challenges still exist, though, necessitating a comprehensive and progressive strategy to guarantee that everyone has access to sustainable, inexpensive, and clean energy. In this study, the authors considered the evolution of some factorial variables that have an influence on the phenomenon of energy poverty at the level of the European Union, using in this sense statistical data taken from official sources, such as Eurostat, from the last 21 years (2004–2024). This analysis is useful to understand the trends and factors that influence energy consumption, energy prices, as well as the population's ability to maintain adequate thermal comfort in homes. This study adds to the expanding conversation on sustainable energy access by revealing the patterns and factors influencing energy consumption, cost, and affordability. It reaffirms the pressing need for an energy system that is resilient, inclusive, and geared to the future—one that enables every home to prosper in a world that is cleaner, fairer, and more sustainable.

Rural household income and residential energy consumption: evidence from the panel threshold model and convergence model

In this article, we examine how income distribution and energy use shaped per-capita CO2 emissions between 1965 and 2022 at three spatial scales—world, northern hemisphere, and southern hemisphere. After re-scaling all the variables to the unit interval, we first estimate separate ordinary least squares regressions and then re-estimate the three equations jointly with Zellner’s seemingly unrelated regression, a step warranted by the substantial contemporaneous error correlation. Across both emission channels—aggregate CO2 and the land-use component—energy consumption emerges as the most consistent and statistically powerful predictor. Inequality effects are heterogeneous. The Gini coefficient amplifies emissions in the southern hemisphere and in the global system but is negligible in the northern fossil-fuel equation, while the Palma ratio reduces land-use emissions once overall inequality is held constant. Temperature anomalies display a further asymmetry, reducing land-use emissions everywhere, yet coinciding with higher fossil-fuel emissions in the south. Joint estimation raises the system-wide goodness of fit to 0.97 for land-use emissions and 0.99 for total emissions and yields more precise coefficients than the separate regressions. The results indicate that decarbonizing energy systems is a universal mitigation priority, whereas distributional reforms and land-governance measures are likely to deliver the greatest additional benefits in the southern hemisphere.

In light of the ongoing global energy shift, this paper examines the socioeconomic factors influencing Nigeria's adoption of renewable energy. By reviewing how income distribution, public spending, energy prices, and job arrangements affect outcomes related to renewable energy, it closes a gap in the body of prior work. This study examines the short- and long-term correlations between important variables using annual data from 1990 to 2022 and an Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) bounds testing method. The results demonstrate a long-term equilibrium relationship in which income inequality, energy costs, and employment in the fossil fuel sector all significantly impede the adoption of renewable energy. There is no statistically significant long-term impact from government spending, renewable energy employment, or foreign direct investment. However, there is a slight negative link between renewable energy adoption and economic growth. The results emphasise the need for targeted legislative measures to remove societal and sectoral barriers to Nigeria's transition to sustainable energy.

Abstract Background Understanding the influence of economic inequality on energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and the uptake of renewable energy is becoming increasingly important as the European Union (EU) intensifies its efforts towards climate neutrality and sustainable development. Despite recent shifts in the income distribution, persistent disparities among social groups remain a critical factor with respect to energy behaviour and environmental outcomes. This research article explores how income inequality affects per capita energy consumption, carbon dioxide emissions from energy use, and the share of renewable energy in the EU. Additionally, it examines how these variables relate to economic performance by using gross domestic product (GDP) as a benchmark. Results This study applies ordinary least squares (OLS) regression to panel data covering 27 EU member states for the period 1990–2023. The results reveal a U-shaped relationship between income inequality and energy consumption per capita. At moderate levels, inequality is associated with reduced energy use; however, beyond a certain threshold, greater inequality leads to increased energy consumption, which is driven primarily by the high demand from wealthy population segments. Furthermore, per capita energy consumption is a strong predictor of emissions, although the marginal impact weakens at higher consumption levels, thus suggesting diminishing returns. Renewable energy significantly helps decrease per capita emissions, but its effectiveness also marginally decreases as its share increases, thus indicating saturation effects. Diagnostic tests for autocorrelation, heteroskedasticity, and cross-sectional dependence confirm the statistical robustness and reliability of the model. Conclusions This study highlights the necessity of integrating social equity into climate and energy policy frameworks. Reducing income inequality can promote energy efficiency and reduce carbon emissions, thereby contributing to the EU’s dual objectives of environmental sustainability and inclusive economic growth. These findings suggest that energy transition policies are more effective when they are complemented by measures that address economic disparities. Future research should explore inequality thresholds that alter environmental impacts and identify policy synergies that maximize both climate and social outcomes.

Multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) technique – compromise programming – was utilized to optimize an integrated farming system (IFS) operated by a representative small sized farm of Indian north-western mid-Himalayas (INWH). The optimization was undertaken to provide a better alternative for formulation of an IFS individually for such variable sized farms that are the majority, especially in INWH, as compared to non-mathematical fixed farm-size simulations that have been adopted in India, which follow a one-size-fits-all approach. The optimal IFS aimed to maximize farm income and food energy while minimizing soil loss – conflicting decision criteria chosen and prioritized by the farmer within constraints such as production input-output ratios, available resources, and preferences for local production to meet family needs. Optimization of selected farmers' IFS revealed potential to achieve better values of their farming attributes, more so revealed by its on-field implementation. Implementation of the formulated IFS plan, comprising crop cultivation and animal husbandry components, on the farm continuously for three years could achieve higher average farm income of >10% and food energy production of >1% compared to potential of 10.9% and 0.4% as per the optimal IFS plan, respectively. The success of the implemented IFS model based on the formulated index indicated that it has at least 67% probability of achieving its potential. Formulating farmer-specific IFS with MCDM, considering local needs and traits, helps small farms identify the best options across criteria, enabling them to move beyond subsistence and failure-prone farming.

The adverse effects of climatic issues on ecological sustainability have been increasing. Within this context, ensuring a transformation in economic structure into eco-friendly ones has become important. Accordingly, the study investigates how productive capacity changes are marginally effective on ecological sustainability by focusing on the Chinese case, using ecological footprint as the main indicator and load capacity factor as the alternative indicator for robustness, considering productive capacity index (PCI) types as independent variables, controlling economic growth, nuclear energy, and renewable energy, and applying the Kernel-Based Least Squares (KRLS) approach on yearly data from 2000 to 2022. The outcomes reveal that (i) aggregated level PCI and PCI subtypes, except for PCI for institutions (PCI-IN) and private sector (PCI-PS), are inefficient in ensuring ecological sustainability; (ii) PCI-IN has a supporting effect on ecological sustainability, while PCI-PS has an increasing but insignificant effect; (iii) economic growth, as well as nuclear and renewable energy consumption, have a decreasing effect on ecological sustainability; (iv) the outcomes are robust; (v) the KRLS approach presents high prediction outcomes reaching 99.7%. Overall, the study demonstrates the marginal effects of PCI subtypes, where only PCI-IN significantly contributes to ecological sustainability. Accordingly, the study discusses policy implications, such as relying on specific PCI types (i.e., PCI-IN) and trying to make other PCI indicators (e.g., PCI-PS) efficient in supporting ecological sustainability further.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-12325-8.

The growing urgency of achieving sustainable development goals, particularly reducing carbon emissions, has highlighted the need for an effective financial instrument to channel capital towards green projects. Although green bonds represent a promising new tool forfinancing environmentally friendly initiatives, research on their direct environmental impact is still ongoing. This study examines the relationship between green bond issuance and carbon emissions, utilizing data from 72 countries between 2014 and 2020. Employing the generalized methods of moments model and rigorous robustness tests, the study finds a statistically significant negative association between green bonds and carbon emissions per capita. However, the impact varies across countries based on their income levels and existing renewable energy deployment. Notably, the effects of green bonds on carbon dioxide emissions per capita weakenin nations with higher income and renewable energy use, suggesting potential diminishing returns from green investment. These findings imply that policymakers should prioritise the development of green bond markets while tailoring policies to optimise environmental benefits, considering variations in clean energy infrastructure. Beyond the empirical contribution, this study advancesthe theoretical discourse in green finance by highlighting green bonds as a distinct mechanism through which financial markets can influence environmental outcomes. By quantifying the environmental impact of green bonds and providing nuanced policy recommendations, this study contributes to a more informed approach to financing sustainable development.

Sea turtles are marine ectotherms commonly considered capital breeders that use accumulated energy stores for reproduction. In some green turtle Chelonia mydas populations, gravid females feed during the inter-nesting period, indicating that they are not exclusively capital breeders but may supplement energy stores with energy gained through feeding during inter-nesting periods. However, the significance of this feeding remains unknown, as does the time allocation between energy intake and energy-saving behaviors during inter-nesting periods. In this study, we deployed video, head-mounted acceleration, and GPS loggers on 9 green turtles nesting on Ishigaki Island, Japan, to monitor their feeding behavior during the inter-nesting period. We found that the turtles spent nearly half of the inter-nesting period resting (42.1% on average), but also dedicated 3.4% of their time to foraging, exhibiting a bimodal daily pattern with peaks in activity during the early morning and evening. Most feeding occurred around the algae/seagrass meadows in close vicinity to resting sites, so little energy is required to shuttle between feeding and resting sites. In such cases, the energy stores acquired prior to the breeding migration can be ‘topped up’ with feeding during inter-nesting intervals. Our results indicate that gravid green turtles employ a mixed capital-income breeding strategy in which females mostly rely on capital energy, but may supplement this with small amounts of income energy gained by feeding during inter-nesting periods.

This study analysed the influence of income growth, energy use, and consumption of renewable energy on carbon dioxide emissions in the selected 24 OECD countries. Using balanced panel data from 1990 to 2016, the study examined the relationship of income, energy use, and consumption of renewable energy with CO 2 emissions. To address the issue of cross-sectional dependence stemming from unobserved common factors, given the trading relationships among these countries, we employed the cross-sectionally augmented ARDL (CS-ARDL) and cross-sectionally augmented Distributed Lag (CS-DL) models to investigate the linkages among the above variables. The study revealed a positive correlation between energy use and CO 2 emissions, and a negative correlation between renewable energy consumption and CO 2 emissions. However, the study found no evidence to support the Environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis. Energy use and renewable energy consumption were also found to be causally linked to CO 2 emissions based on the Dumitrescu-Hurlin non-Granger causality test. However, the inverted U-shaped relationship of income growth with CO 2 emissions does not exist in the sampled OECD countries. Therefore, it is not advisable for these OECD countries to be dependent on income growth for environmental sustainability. Rather, these OECD countries need to directly cut down CO 2 emissions through the use of clean and renewable energy sources, decreasing non-renewable energy use. Moreover, considering the Jevons’ Paradox and the ‘rebound effects’ of energy efficiency gains that may increase overall energy consumption, a comprehensive approach combining energy efficiency and renewable energy integration is essential for mitigating CO 2 emissions and promoting environmental sustainability in these OECD countries. JEL Classification: Q430; Q560.

ABSTRACTEnergy poverty remains a pressing issue in developing countries, intensified by inadequate energy policies and ongoing socio‐economic and political crises. This study examines the long‐run empirical nexuses among political stability, female employment, corruption, trade deficit, income disparity, urbanization, and energy poverty in six SAARC countries (Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and Nepal) from 2000 to 2020, within the context of the SDGs, specifically SDG‐7 (Affordable and Clean Energy). We applied four econometric approaches for empirical analysis: the Westerlund LM bootstrap, the PMG‐ARDL, robustness analysis, and the Dumitrescu‐Hurlin causality tests. The Westerlund LM bootstrap test validates the presence of long‐run co‐integration among variables. The long‐run PMG‐ARDL model results reveal that all the factors, including corruption, trade deficit, income disparities, and urbanization, boost energy poverty except for political stability and female employment. These results indicate that political stability and female employment are critical for achieving SDG‐7. A widening trade deficit, increasing income inequality, and rapid urbanization hinder SDG‐7 and energy poverty alleviation. Moreover, the Dumitrescu‐Hurlin causality results reveal bi‐directional causality among income disparity, corruption, political stability, and energy poverty, while female employment, urbanization, and trade deficit exhibit uni‐directional causality towards energy poverty. Based on these findings, the study suggests that policymakers should focus on improving political stability, promoting female employment, and implementing targeted interventions to decrease income disparity, combat corruption, and manage urbanization through solid policies to diminish energy poverty and ensure progress toward the 2030 SDG‐7 targets.

The relationship between folate and the risk of colorectal cancer (CRC) remains inconclusive. To control for the interference from folic acid fortification, we assessed the relationship between folate intake, serum folate, and red blood cell (RBC) folate levels and the risk of CRC death in a cohort established before fortification. We analyzed the data of 14,528 adults aged 19 years or older who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1988-1994) as the baseline examination and were followed through December 31, 2006. Hazard ratios (HR) of CRC deaths were estimated for individuals with different folate intake and biomarker levels. Covariates included age, sex, family income, race/ethnicity, cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking, serum cotinine, vitamin supplements, and dietary energy intake. After 192,973 person-years (pys) of follow-up with a mean of 14 years, 78 CRC deaths were recorded. The CRC death rate was 0.75/1000 pys, 0.39/1000 pys, and 0.29/1000 pys for adults with low (lower quarter), moderate, and high (upper quarter) total dietary folate equivalent (tDFE, including both dietary and supplemental intake of folate); the adjusted HR was 0.12 (95% CI = 0.03, 0.45) for adults with high, and 0.51 (0.24, 1.11) for moderate tDFE compared to adults with low tDFE (p for trend = 0.09). Similar trends appeared with statistical significance for serum folate but not for dietary folate intake and RBC folate. With minimum interference from folic acid fortification, high folate intake was found to be associated with a reduced risk of CRC death.

Abstract The relationship between national income and renewable energy deployment has gained significant attention in recent years, as understanding this linkage is crucial for shaping future energy policy. However, existing empirical studies report widely varying estimates of income elasticity of renewable energy deployment, creating ambiguity around the consistency of this relationship. To address this, we conduct a meta-analysis using 785 elasticity estimates from 68 studies. We apply a meta-regression technique to explore the sources of heterogeneity across these studies. The results of our analysis show an average income elasticity of 0.413, meaning that a 1% increase in national income is associated with 0.413% increase in renewable energy deployment. Our findings show that the heterogeneity in these estimates is explained by various factors including a country’s stage of development, the number of renewable energy sources included in the analysis, and the type of econometric method used. We further find the presence of publication bias which causes overestimation of the magnitude of the income elasticity of renewable energy deployment in published sources. Our findings have implications for renewable energy policy development including the need for caution when using published elasticity estimates for policy formation. We also highlight methodological and contextual issues with a view to future research.

The relationships between energy consumption and economic growth have been extensively studied in the economic and energy literature, yet empirical findings remain inconclusive. This systematic review examines the existing theoretical and empirical research on the energy-growth nexus, analyzing studies from developed and developing economies. The review explores four primary hypotheses: the growth hypothesis (energy consumption drives economic expansion), the conservation hypothesis (economic growth influences energy demand), the feedback hypothesis (a bidirectional relationship), and the neutrality hypothesis (no causal relationship). Findings indicate that the energy-growth relationship varies across countries depending on factors such as income levels, energy mix, and methodological approaches. Developed economies tend to exhibit a shift toward energy efficiency and the conservation hypothesis, while developing economies largely support the growth hypothesis, highlighting their dependency on energy for industrialization. The increasing role of renewable energy in sustaining economic growth is also examined, with evidence suggesting that while renewable investments support long-term economic sustainability, short-term transition challenges exist. The review underscores the need for balanced energy policies, renewable energy investment, and technological innovations to ensure sustainable economic growth while minimizing environmental impact. Future research should focus on regional-specific dynamics, the role of institutional factors, and the implications of climate policies on the energy-growth relationship.

The rapid urbanization in Southeast Asia has resulted in an increase in vertical apartment buildings, bringing notable changes in residents’ lifestyles accompanied by Westernized cultures. Focusing on Indonesia, this study delves into how residents adapt their behaviors, especially traditional floor-sitting behavior, to living in the different types of apartments. The study also explores energy consumption and thermal comfort in relation to floor-usage behaviors. We conducted a comprehensive questionnaire survey of more than 3300 respondents in Indonesia, with 1841 Jabodetabek samples used for analysis. The findings indicate that approximately 80% of lower-income apartment residents (Rusunawa) predominantly engaged in floor-sitting behavior and relied on fans for cooling. In contrast, approximately 75% of higher-income apartment residents (condominiums) preferred chair-sitting and used air conditioning (AC). Cluster analysis of three key factors—primary posture, foot covering, and floor covering—revealed four distinct groups. The clusters with a lower preference for floor-sitting exhibited approximately 50% higher annual electricity consumption due to AC usage, whereas the clusters favoring floor-sitting consumed less electricity, relying more on fans. However, despite variations in energy use, over 85% of respondents across all clusters were mostly reported as comfortable, indicating that behavioral adaptations with floor-sitting remain viable in achieving thermal comfort. While an increase in income level changes behaviors and energy use, the results suggest that floor-sitting is a traditional practice that serves as an effective low-energy strategy in hot and humid climates.

Household energy consumption is one of the major drivers of carbon emissions, and an in-depth analysis of its influencing factors, along with forecasting carbon emission trajectories, is crucial for achieving China’s carbon emission targets. This study reviews the research progress on urban household energy-related carbon emissions (HErC) in China since 2000, with a focus on the latest developments in influencing factors. The study categorizes these factors into five major groups: household characteristics, economic attributes, energy consumption features, awareness and norms, and policies and interventions. The findings indicate that income levels, energy efficiency, and household size are the key determinants of urban HErC of China and are commonly used as core assumptions in scenario-based forecasts of emission trends. In addition, although environmental awareness and government services have increasingly garnered attention, their specific effects require further investigation due to the challenges in quantification. A synthesis of existing forecasting studies suggests that, without the implementation of effective measures, HErC will continue to rise, and the peak emission period will be delayed. Enhancing building and energy efficiency, promoting low-carbon consumption and clean energy applications, and implementing multidimensional coordinated policies are considered the most effective pathways for emission reduction.

This study examines the emerging challenge of how income inequality affects household energy consumption within the European Union amidst the ongoing energy crisis. Using the Gini index and the gender pay gap as indicators of income inequality, the analysis covers the period 2000–2023 across EU member states. Dynamic panel data models reveal that the Gini index negatively impacted final energy consumption per capita as well as energy consumption specifically from gas oil and diesel, while the gender pay gap is associated with less energy consumption in the realms of natural gas and ambient heating. Causality is further explored through recent methodology developed for panel data and Bayesian networks, and the results confirm the causality between energy consumption and income inequality. To address the complex relationship between income inequality and energy consumption, policymakers should implement integrated strategies promoting energy efficiency, clean energy transitions, gender equality, and social safety nets, particularly in light of the energy crisis exacerbated by the Russia–Ukraine conflict.

ABSTRACTThe objective of this article is to investigate the impact of happiness on environmental degradation utilizing annual data for 36 OECD nations from 2005 to 2021. To achieve this goal, GMM, Driscoll–Kray, and MMQR methodologies were employed. According to the empirical findings, happiness serves as a crucial variable in mitigating environmental degradation. Moreover, the investigation probed into the impact of income, technological advances, democracy, population, and renewable energy consumption on environmental degradation. The outcomes indicate that the EKC hypothesis holds for OECD countries that technological innovations, democracy, and renewable energy consumption have a mitigating impact on environmental degradation. In contrast, population growth, a factor that exacerbates environmental degradation, should be a cause for concern.

This study examines the impact of the European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) funds, specifically the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (FEADR) and the European Agricultural Guarantee Fund (FEGA), on a range of economic, social, and environmental outcomes across European regions. Utilizing Fully Modified Ordinary Least Squares (FMOLS) estimators, this research analyses 13 equations corresponding to various dependent variables, including employment rates, poverty levels, agricultural productivity, and environmental indicators such as greenhouse gas emissions and renewable energy production from agriculture. This analysis covers the period from 2010 to 2021, and draws upon a balanced sample of 301 observations to ensure robust estimations. Results indicate that both FEADR and FEGA payments significantly influence these regional outcomes, though the effects vary depending on the specific economic or environmental indicator examined. The findings reveal that while FEADR payments positively impact rural employment, agricultural income, and renewable energy production, they are less effective in addressing poverty reduction and productivity enhancement. Conversely, FEGA payments exhibit a stronger influence on agricultural productivity and income, but have mixed effects on environmental sustainability. This study highlights significant regional disparities, suggesting that the allocation of CAP funds is uneven in its impact across regions. The implications for policymakers are clear: a more tailored approach is required to enhance the effectiveness of CAP funds in meeting diverse regional needs, particularly in promoting economic development while minimizing environmental harm. This study also emphasizes the need for further research to explore alternative policy mechanisms and innovative agricultural practices that can bridge the gaps identified in the current CAP framework. Limitations of this study include data availability and the inherent complexity of agricultural systems, which may affect the generalizability of the results across different EU member states.

Higher education levels improve income and career opportunities and foster environmental awareness, impacting household energy consumption. To explore the relationship between education, income, energy-saving awareness, and household energy consumption, we chose four Chinese cities—Beijing, Guangzhou, Xining, and Liaocheng—ranked by per capita GDP. These cities provide a cross-sectional view of energy consumption patterns across China’s geographical regions. Specifically, we analyzed survey data from 5772 households to assess household energy consumption in the focal cities. Then, we integrated income levels and subjective energy-saving awareness and behavior into our analysis framework, examining the impact of different education attainments on household energy consumption and the underlying mechanisms. Our findings show that average household energy consumption is highest in Xining, followed by Beijing, Liaocheng, and lowest in Guangzhou. Income and energy-saving awareness and behavior moderate the relationship between education and household energy consumption. Thus, we demonstrate that the income variable has a substitution effect for education level on household energy consumption in all areas and the four representative cities. Moreover, subjective energy-saving awareness and behavior moderate the function of education, reducing household energy consumption.