ABSTRACT The article examines whether social protection programmes meant for poverty reduction have any impact on income distribution across households in India using the social accounting matrix for the year 2022-2023. The analysis focuses on three social protection programmes, viz. the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Gramin (PMAY-G) and National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP). Sponsored by the central government, these programmes have distinct features and significance within India’s social security framework. The findings show that the indirect income effect is higher than the direct income effect of expenses under these programmes, indicating a strong multiplier effect driven by production and consumption linkages. While the direct income transfers are made in favour of the poor households, the richer households in both rural and urban areas receive larger indirect income arising from inter-sectoral linkages, higher skills and ownership of productive assets. Nevertheless, the total income effect of targeted beneficiaries remains higher than that of other household classes due to a larger direct income effect. It causes marginal changes in income distribution across households, indicating the distributional impact of social protection programmes.

Drawing on Bourdieu’s linguistic capital theory, this study utilized semi-structured inter-views with76 low-skilled Bangladeshi workers in Malaysia to explore how language ca-pability influences the overtime pay. The findings suggest that linguistic capital acts as an informal threshold in the allocation of overtime pay through three mechanisms: commu-nication efficiency, opportunity screening, and competency-based trust. This study ex-tends research on linguistic capital by demonstrating how language skills influence the informal income distribution of low-skilled foreign workers. This study contributes to the literature on linguistic capital and labor inequality by reconceptualizing language capa-bility as an informal institutional mechanism embedded in managerial practices through which overtime opportunities and income advantages for low-skilled foreign workers are unevenly distributed.

ABSTRACT This research examines income distribution inequality generated by production aimed at external and internal markets, adopting a structural and spatial perspective. The methodology employs an interregional input–output model enhanced with satellite vectors for labour compensation and surplus alongside regional inequality indicators. The findings highlight the importance of industrial policies that promote productive development and address inequalities. Domestic market production shows greater economic growth potential, as the income it generates is more evenly distributed across federal entities and more favourable to workers. A regional-scope development strategy should aim for balanced growth driven by both domestic and external demand.

This study investigated intraoccupational income and wage-rate distributions across 8 health care professions: physicians and surgeons, dentists, physician assistants, optometrists, pharmacists, nurse practitioners and nurse midwives, physical therapists, and registered nurses. The research was based on a sample of 142,527 U.S. practitioners from the 2019 to 2022 American Community Survey (ACS) and focused on 4 inequality indicators: the coefficient of variation, lower median share, 90-10 decile ratio, and Gini coefficient. Findings revealed substantial income dispersion, with dentists and physicians/surgeons displaying the highest levels of inequality, while pharmacists, registered nurses, physical therapists, and nurse practitioners and nurse midwives exhibited more even distributions. The occupations' degree of inequality was correlated with average annual income and wage-rate levels. Gender disparities were significant across all professions, with male practitioners consistently earning more than their female counterparts. The degree of inequality was greater for professions in which there were more male than female practitioners. Annual income and wage-rate inequality also was identified within genders. This research contributes to understanding income disparities within health care professions and suggests that further exploration is needed to identify the determinants of these inequalities and their long-term evolution.

The subject of this study is the examination of changes in fiscal policy following the implementation of the „Polish Deal” program. Specifically, the analysis focuses on the impact of the modifications introduced in the methodology of calculating the Personal Income Tax (PIT) on the extent to which this tax contributes to a more equitable distribution of household income. The aim of the study is to demonstrate, by means of simple and comprehensible calculations suitable for didactic purposes, a quantitative assessment of the redistributive function of PIT before and after the implementation of the „Polish Deal” program. The motivation for this work stems from the observation that, to date, scientific and didactic literature has provided only limited comparative analyses of the redistributive role of PIT within the Polish tax system. Our research relies on the well-established measure of income inequality, the Gini coefficient. Two statistical approaches to its calculation, most frequently cited in the literature, are applied. To reinforce the conclusions and as an independent tool of rapid assessment, regression analysis using the ordinary least squares (OLS) method is also conducted. The findings indicate that the PIT system has fulfilled its redistributive function both prior to and after the „Polish Deal” program. Nevertheless, certain differences favoring the new calculation method are identified. These are reflected in the trajectory of improvements in the Gini coefficient and in the diagnostic indicators of the regression models.

In recent years, slowing global growth and rising uncertainty have reshaped consumer spending patterns, making "consumption downgrading" a prominent trend across numerous economies. This study examines how consumers adjust their choices when confronting tighter budgets, higher prices, and a growing caution about the future. It focuses on the intersection of economic pressures, shifting cultural attitudes, and the rapid changes brought by digital retail. The key research questions are: Why are consumers increasingly turning to lower-priced alternatives? How do these changes manifest across various countries and industries? And what challenges and opportunities do they create for businesses? Drawing on international economic reports and consumer surveys, the study finds that consumption downgrading is not merely about "spending less" but rather about "spending smarter". People are selecting products that balance price, quality, and flexibility, while companies must respond with clearer value propositions, reliable quality, and more adaptive pricing strategies. On a broader level, this trend also reflects deeper issues in income distribution and long-term confidence, suggesting that the future consumption recovery will depend on both economic stability and social expectations.

The Fermi–Dirac distribution modeling of income distribution of developing and developed countries: A comparative study of Indonesia, United States, and Singapore

Chains of disparity: How global value chains reshape income distribution in the Malaysian manufacturing sector

A parsimonious approach to predicting income distributions

Abstract After growing steadily for decades, average U.S. household energy consumption began declining in the mid-2000s. Using household-level data from the Residential Energy Consumption Survey and Current Population Survey between 1990 and 2020, we decompose overall changes in per household consumption into three components: average income, cross-household income distribution, and consumption habits, which include energy efficiency. Growth of average income caused consumption to increase by 11%, and rising income inequality reduced consumption by 8%, nearly entirely offsetting the effect of income growth. Changes in habits also reduced consumption. Back-of-the-envelope calculations indicate an unexpected effect of rising income inequality: climate and air quality improvements valued at $9 billion in 2020 due to lower electricity consumption. The results indicate the importance of coordinating policies that address inequality and pollution.

Based on panel data of urban and rural residents' consumption from 31 provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities in China from 2011 to 2023, this study systematically explores the evolutionary characteristics, regional differences, and driving mechanisms of urban and rural residents' consumption structure upgrading by constructing a demand income elasticity model, a Gini coefficient decomposition model, and a regional consumption upgrading convergence analysis. The study finds that the consumption structure of urban and rural residents is shifting from subsistence-oriented to development-oriented and enjoyment-oriented, with the urban-rural income gap being the primary factor influencing consumption differentiation. Residential consumption exhibits high income elasticity across all dimensions, particularly in urban areas. Regional consumption upgrading differences show a dynamic pattern of eastern regions leading, central regions catching up, and western regions differentiating, with the growth rate of intra-regional differences exceeding that of inter-regional differences, reflecting the intensifying phenomenon of consumption stratification within regions. This paper proposes policy recommendations from the dimensions of urbanization effects and income distribution structure, aiming to promote the coordinated upgrading of urban and rural consumption and contribute to the realization of the goal of common prosperity.

The study examines the differences in hourly earnings among employees, which can contribute to an unequal distribution of income with implications for equity and social cohesion. The analyses apply a log-linear regression model to data from the Structure of Earnings Survey (SES). The method allows highlighting whether and to what extent certain categories of employees are disadvantaged compared to others. The findings reveal substantial and persistent wage differentials associated with gender, education, occupation, contract type, firm size and geographical location. In particular, women earn significantly less than men even after controlling for observable factors, and higher educational attainment is strongly rewarded, though unevenly across sectors. Territorial gaps also remain pronounced, especially between the North-West and the South. These results underscore the importance of targeted labour market policies aimed at reducing structural disparities and improving wage equity across demographic groups and regions.

ABSTRACT This study examines the dietary conditions of the Chilean population in 1960. It evaluates the relationship between food poverty and income inequality through an integrated analysis of consumption- and income-based data. It combines qualitative research with quantitative analysis of two primary sources: the 1960 national nutrition survey conducted by the Interdepartmental Committee on Nutrition for National Defense (ICNND), and the 1960 Employment and Unemployment Survey of Greater Santiago, which includes income data from 2,352 households. The ICNND survey provided detailed clinical and dietary indicators, revealing widespread deficiencies, including underweight, anemia, and low intake of protein-rich and protective foods. The analysis found that structural income inequality was a significant determinant of nutritional deprivation. While national food availability was sufficient in terms of calories, unequal income distribution limited access to adequate diets for a considerable portion of the population.

Abstract The association between inequality and subjective well-being depends on which aspect of inequality is captured. Objective indicators based on income data, subjective assessments of the income distribution, and normative fairness perceptions each tap into different facets of how inequality is experienced and evaluated. Our paper starts from the hypothesis that perceived income inequality, particularly when it includes a normative fairness component, better explains subjective well-being than objective measures of inequality. Not only do people systematically fail to locate their income position within an objectively observable income distribution, but income inequality underlies a personal assessment regarding the fairness in the processes leading to it. The various factors influencing subjective perceptions of income distribution, including perceived fairness and the perceived possibility of upward mobility ultimately affect well-being outcomes. Using a unique data set from Thailand, we compare objectively measured community-level Gini coefficients with two perceived inequality measures. Based on effect sizes and model fit statistics, the fairness-based perceived inequality measure provides the strongest association with subjective well-being. We explore how perceptions of income distribution, and of mobility opportunities within it, are influenced by broader contextual factors. These perceptions can be associated with distinct emotional responses: when inequality is seen as fair, it may foster optimism and upward aspirations (the tunnel effect); when seen as unfair, it may provoke frustration or resentment (the relative deprivation effect).

China's urban-rural Integrated Medical Insurance System (IMIS) has expanded universal health coverage, reducing disparities in healthcare access between urban and rural populations and addressing challenges such as unequal access to medical care and reimbursement barriers for disadvantaged groups. Previous research highlights that health insurance influences medical risk, labor mobility, and income distribution, with women valuing and utilizing health insurance more than men. This study investigates IMIS's impact on women's entrepreneurship in China using data from the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) and the China Statistical Yearbook. A Difference-in-Differences (DID) analysis reveals that IMIS increases the likelihood of women's entrepreneurship by 9.6 percentage points, with robustness confirmed through multiple tests. The study identifies reduced medical expenditure risk, increased access to high-risk occupations, and enhanced household bargaining power as key mechanisms driving this effect. Heterogeneity analyses show that younger women, those with higher education, rural-urban migrants, women with children, those in poorer health, and those with lower household income get greater benefits, underscoring IMIS's inclusivity. These findings demonstrate that IMIS promotes women's entrepreneurship, enhancing economic performance and welfare.

Abstract The Expense Tracker is a comprehensive web-based financial management platform designed to simplify personal and business budgeting. This intuitive system enables users to monitor income, track expenditures, and analyze spending patterns through an interactive dashboard with real-time visualizations. Key features include automated transaction categorization, bank account synchronization. The Expense Tracker is an all-in-one financial management tool built to make budgeting and expense tracking easier for individuals. With its user-friendly, real- time dashboard, users get a clear view of their income, spending, and budget distribution through easy to-understand visuals. Users can create their own budget categories, keep tabs on their spending, and receive timely alerts when they’re close to going over budget. The system tracks both one-time and recurring expenses with accuracy, and it can generate detailed financial reports, including cash flow summaries, to support better financial planning. Keywords: Personal and Business budgeting, automated transaction categorization, timely alerts, generate financial reports.

This retrospective, population-based study investigated the influence of parental income on long-term outcomes in pediatric tracheostomy in Taiwan. We identified all inpatients who were aged < 18 years and received tracheostomy between 2000 and 2014 from Taiwan's National Health Insurance Research Database (NHIRD) and followed them until 2019. Parental income was determined by the monthly income of the primary caregiver in the year of the child's tracheostomy and was classified into low, middle, and high income groups based on year-specific income distributions. Among 2031 children who were identified (mean age, 8.8 years; 64% boys), 707, and 615, and 709 were assigned to low-, middle-, and high-income groups, respectively. Children in the low-income group had significantly higher rates of in-hospital death (24.2% vs. 5.1%), 1-year mortality (42.2% vs. 9.6%), 5-year mortality (68.0% vs. 19.6%), and overall mortality (77.5% vs. 29.8%) compared with those in the high-income group (all p < 0.001). Multivariable analysis results indicated that children in the low-income group had significantly higher rates of in-hospital death (hazard ratio [HR] = 6.38), 1-year mortality (HR = 5.28), 5-year mortality (HR = 4.99), and overall mortality (HR = 4.48) compared with those in the high-income group. Length of hospital stay and readmission rate did not differ significantly between the income groups. Lower parental income was associated with increased risks of in-hospital, 1-year, 5-year, and overall mortality in Taiwanese children undergoing tracheostomy.

Persistent income inequality and uneven economic development remain pressing challenges in Malaysia despite decades of public investment across key sectors. This study investigates the sectoral allocation of government spending and its impact on economic growth and income distribution, focusing on four critical areas: public pension payments, agriculture and rural development, education and training, and healthcare. Motivated by concerns about rising public debt, inefficient fiscal allocation, and growing public dissatisfaction, this study addresses a gap in the literature by providing a comparative long-term analysis of spending effectiveness across key sectors. Using time series data from 1980 to 2021 and applying the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) model, the study reveals that spending on agriculture and rural development and education and training significantly contribute to long-term economic growth. By contrast, health and pension expenditures were found to be statistically insignificant in driving growth. Regarding income inequality, only agriculture and rural development spending show a long-term impact, while pension spending has short-run significance. This study makes a novel contribution by jointly examining the effects of government spending on both economic growth and income inequality across key sectors, providing actionable insights for more focused and efficient fiscal policymaking. The findings highlight the importance of prioritizing productive sectors, re-evaluating pension policies, and ensuring transparency in fiscal management to enhance growth and equity outcomes in Malaysia.

ABSTRACT This paper investigates whether labour's structural bargaining power, measured via network centrality in global input−output linkages, affects the distribution of income towards labour at sectoral, national and global scales. Building on the power resources approach, this paper suggests a conceptual and empirical framework for measuring labour's structural power through its network position in global input–output relations. Using the country‐sector centrality and data from the World Input‐Output Database (1995–2009, 40 countries, 35 sectors), I estimate dynamic effects on labour's value‐added share with local projections, controlling for associational power, capital intensity and productivity. Results show that structurally labour employed in the central country‐sectors tend to capture higher labour shares at national and global scales. The study contributes to the power resources approach by operationalizing structural power as a quantifiable, macroeconomically significant position in global value chains.

This study examines whether economic policy ideologies or economic threat perceptions predict Indonesian Muslim voters’ support for non-Muslim political leaders. Using 2018 World Values Survey data from 1877 employed Muslim respondents, the analysis tests two competing mechanisms. Traditional economic ideologies —preferences for income distribution, government ownership, welfare policies, and success determinants—show no relationship with support for non-Muslim leaders across presidential, mayoral, and parliamentary positions, confirming that left–right economic cleavages do not structure Indonesian political competition. However, perceptions of competition as threatening significantly reduce support for non-Muslim candidates, with effects strongest at local legislative levels characterized by direct patron–client relationships. Inter-religious trust buffers against competition-based exclusion, while competition anxiety manifests through eroded neighborhood trust and labor market concerns rather than explicit outgroup rejection. Moderate institutional trust correlates with viewing competition as harmful, suggesting partial confidence heightens awareness of competitive risks. These findings demonstrate that economic factors relate to religious-political attitudes through psychological mechanisms of perceived threat rather than ideological alignment, extending post-Ahok scholarship on religious mobilization by specifying individual-level pathways linking economic anxieties to political exclusion.