In-flight Energy Research Articles

In-flight Energy Calibration of the GECAM Gamma-ray Detectors

The Gravitational wave high-energy Electromagnetic Counterpart All-sky Monitor (GECAM) mission is designed to monitor the Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs) associated with gravitational waves and other high-energy transient sources. The mission consists of two microsatellites which are planned to operate at the opposite sides of the Earth. Each GECAM satellite could detect and localize GRBs in about 8 keV–5 MeV with its 25 Gamma-Ray Detectors (GRDs). In this work, we report the in-flight energy calibration of GRDs using the characteristic gamma-ray lines in the background spectra, and show their performance evolution during the commissioning phase. Besides, a preliminary cross-calibration of energy response with Fermi GBM data is also presented, validating the energy response of GRDs.

Does migration constrain glucocorticoid phenotypes? Testing corticosterone levels during breeding in migratory versus resident birds.

Corticosterone, the main glucocorticoid in birds, is a major mediator of the incredible physiological feat of migration. Corticosterone plays important roles in migration, from preparation to in-flight energy mobilization to refueling, and corticosterone levels often show distinct elevations or depressions during certain stages of the migratory process. Here, we ask whether corticosterone's role in migration shapes its modulation during other life history stages, as is the case with some other phenotypically flexible traits involved in migration. Specifically, we use a global dataset of corticosterone measures to test whether birds' migratory status (migrant versus resident) predicts corticosterone levels during breeding. Our results indicate that migratory status predicts neither baseline nor stress-induced corticosterone levels in breeding birds; despite corticosterone's role in migration, we find no evidence that migratory corticosterone phenotypes carry over to breeding. We encourage future studies to continue to explore corticosterone in migrants versus residents across the annual cycle. Additionally, future efforts should aim to disentangle the possible effects of environmental conditions and migratory status on corticosterone phenotypes; potentially fruitful avenues include focusing on regions where migrants and residents overlap during breeding. Overall, insights from work in this area could demonstrate whether migration shapes traits during other important life stages, identify tradeoffs or limitations associated with the migratory lifestyle, and ultimately shed light on the evolution of flexible traits and migration.

Effect of Exercise on Energy Expenditure and Body Composition in Astronauts Onboard the International Space Station: Considerations for Interplanetary Travel.

Body mass (BM) loss and body composition (BC) changes threaten astronauts' health and mission success. However, the energetic contribution of the exercise countermeasure to these changes has never been investigated during long-term missions. We studied energy balance and BC in astronauts during 6-month missions onboard the International Space Station. Before and after at least 3months in space, BM, BC, total and activity energy expenditure (TEE and AEE) were measured using the doubly labeled water method in 11 astronauts (2011-2017). Physical activity (PA) was assessed by the SensewearPro® activity-device. Three-month spaceflight decreased BM (-1.20kg [SE 0.5]; P = 0.04), mainly due to non-significant fat-free mass loss (FFM; -0.94kg [0.59]). The decrease in walking time (-63.2min/day [11.5]; P < 0.001) from preflight was compensated by increases in non-ambulatory activities (+ 64.8min/day [18.8]; P < 0.01). Average TEE was unaffected but a large interindividual variability was noted. Astronauts were stratified into those who maintained (stable_TEE; n = 6) and those who decreased (decreased_TEE; n = 5) TEE and AEE compared to preflight data. Although both groups lost similar BM, FFM was maintained and FM reduced in stable_TEE astronauts, while FFM decreased and FM increased in decreased_TEE astronauts (estimated between-group-difference (EGD) in ΔFFMindex [FFMI] 0.87kg/m2, 95% CI + 0.32 to + 1.41; P = 0.01, ΔFMindex [FMI] -1.09kg/m2, 95% CI -2.06 to -0.11kg/m2; P = 0.03). The stable_TEE group had higher baseline FFMI, and greater baseline and inflight vigorous PA than the decreased_TEE group (P < 0.05 for all). ΔFMI and ΔFFMI were respectively negatively and positively associated with both ΔTEE and ΔAEE. Both ground fitness and inflight overall PA are associated with spaceflight-induced TEE and BC changes and thus energy requirements. New instruments are needed to measure real-time individual changes in inflight energy balance components.

In-Flight Energy-Driven Composition of Drone Swarm Services

We propose a novel framework for swarm-based drone delivery services with in-flight energy recharging. The framework aims to enhance the delivery time of multiple packages by reducing the number of stops and recharging times at intermediate stations. The proposed framework considers various <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">intrinsic and extrinsic</i> delivery constraints. We propose to use <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">support drones</i> whose sole purpose is to recharge other drones in the swarm during their flight. In this respect, we compute the optimal set of optimal support drones to minimize the probability of delivery services and recharging time at the next stations. We also use two settings to position the support drones in a flight formation for comparative purposes. Two novel <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">energy sharing</i> methods are proposed, namely, Priority-based and Fairness-based methods. A re-ordering method of the delivery drones is presented to facilitate the in-flight energy composition process. An enhanced A* algorithm is implemented to compose the optimal services in terms of delivery time. Experimental results prove the efficiency of our proposed approach.

Towards human exploration of space: The THESEUS review series on nutrition and metabolism research priorities.

Nutrition has multiple roles during space flight from providing sufficient nutrients to meet the metabolic needs of the body and to maintain good health, to the beneficial psychosocial aspects related to the meals. Nutrition is central to the functioning of the body; poor nutrition compromises all the physiological systems. Nutrition is therefore likely to have a key role in counteracting the negative effects of space flight (e.g., radiation, immune deficits, oxidative stress, and bone and muscle loss). As missions increase in duration, any dietary/nutritional deficiencies will become progressively more detrimental. Moreover, it has been recognized that the human diet contains, in addition to essential macronutrients, a complex array of naturally occurring bioactive micronutrients that may confer significant long-term health benefits. It is therefore critical that astronauts be adequately nourished during missions. Problems of nutritional origin are often treatable by simply providing the appropriate nutrients and adequate recommendations. This review highlights six key issues that have been identified as space research priorities in nutrition field: in-flight energy balance; altered feeding behavior; development of metabolic stress; micronutrient deficiency; alteration of gut microflora; and altered fluid and electrolytes balance. For each of these topics, relevance for space exploration, knowledge gaps and proposed investigations are described. Finally, the nutritional questions related to bioastronautics research are very relevant to multiple ground-based-related health issues. The potential spin-offs are both interesting scientifically and potentially of great clinical importance.

The front-end electronics of the Spectrometer Telescope for Imaging X-Rays (STIX) on the ESA Solar Orbiter satellite

Solar Orbiter is an ESA mission to study the heliosphere in proximity to the Sun, scheduled for launch in January 2017. It carries a suite of ten instruments for comprehensive remote-sensing and in-situ measurements.The Spectrometer Telescope for Imaging X-Rays (STIX), one of the remote sensing instruments, images X-rays between 4 and 150keV using an Fourier technique. The angular resolution is 7 arcsec and the spectral resolution 1keV full-width-half-maximum at 6keV. X-ray detection uses pixelized Cadmium Telluride crystals provided by the Paul Scherrer Institute. The crystals are bonded to read-out hybrids developed by CEA Saclay, called Caliste-SO, incorporating a low-noise, low-power analog front-end ASIC IDeF-X HD. The crystals are cooled to -20°C to obtain very low leakage currents of less than 60pA per pixel, the prerequisite for obtaining the required spectral resolution.This article briefly describes the mission goals and then details the front-end electronics design and main challenges, resulting in part from the allocation limit in mass of 7kg and in power of 4W. Emphasis is placed on the design influence of the cooling requirement within the warm environment of a mission approaching the Sun to within the orbit of Mercury. The design for the long-term in-flight energy calibration is also explained.

Design and In-Orbit Performance of the Suzaku Wide-Band All-Sky Monitor

Abstract The Suzaku Wide-band All-sky Monitor (WAM) consists of thick BGO anti-coincidence shields of the Hard X-ray Detectors (HXD). It views about half of the sky and has a geometrical area of 800 cm$^2$ per sdide and an effective area of 400 cm$^2$, even at 1 MeV. Hence, the WAM can provide unique opportunities to detect high-energy emission from GRBs and solar flares in the sub-MeV to MeV range. The WAM has detected more than 400 GRBs and 100 solar flares since its launch. This paper describes the in-flight performance of the HXD/WAM during the initial two years of operations, including the in-flight energy response, spectral and timing capabilities, and in-orbit background.

Pointed Wings, Low Wingloading and Calm Air Reduce Migratory Flight Costs in Songbirds

Migratory bird, bat and insect species tend to have more pointed wings than non-migrants. Pointed wings and low wingloading, or body mass divided by wing area, are thought to reduce energy consumption during long-distance flight, but these hypotheses have never been directly tested. Furthermore, it is not clear how the atmospheric conditions migrants encounter while aloft affect their energy use; without such information, we cannot accurately predict migratory species' response(s) to climate change. Here, we measured the heart rates of 15 free-flying Swainson's Thrushes (Catharus ustulatus) during migratory flight. Heart rate, and therefore rate of energy expenditure, was positively associated with individual variation in wingtip roundedness and wingloading throughout the flights. During the cruise phase of the flights, heart rate was also positively associated with wind speed but not wind direction, and negatively but not significantly associated with large-scale atmospheric stability. High winds and low atmospheric stability are both indicative of the presence of turbulent eddies, suggesting that birds may be using more energy when atmospheric turbulence is high. We therefore suggest that pointed wingtips, low wingloading and avoidance of high winds and turbulence reduce flight costs for small birds during migration, and that climate change may have the strongest effects on migrants' in-flight energy use if it affects the frequency and/or severity of high winds and atmospheric instability.

Search for cyclotron lines in INTEGRAL/SPI spectra of Vela X-1

The wind-accreting X-ray binary pulsar Vela X-1 has been observed during the two INTEGRAL Core Program observations of the Vela region in June–July and November–December 2003. Preliminary results on time averaged and time resolved spectra of INTEGRAL/SPI for the two observation epochs are presented. Time averages have been used in order to increase the signal to noise ratio, but cyclotron line features expected at ∼20–25 and ∼53 keV are without any doubt detected in the INTEGRAL/SPI spectra. This work shows that the detection of cyclotron feature as given in [Kretschmar, P., Staubert, R., Kreykenbohm, I., et al. In: Proceedings of 5th INTEGRAL Workshop, 2004.] should be taken with caution due to background modelling uncertainties. Further work using a better in-flight energy calibration and background monitoring is planed to improve the analysis.

Skinfold thickness versus isotope dilution for body fat assessment during simulated microgravity: results from three bed-rest campaigns in men and women with and without countermeasures

Because body composition is altered during head-down bed rest (HDBR), body mass can not be used as an index of energy balance. Consequently diet allowances should not be based on body mass evolution but on fat mass changes. Though criticized, skinfold thickness (ST) is the costless, easiest and fastest method to use for such an objective. The aim of this study was to compare the percentage of body fat (%BF) estimated by ST with the isotope dilution of H2 18O. We compiled data from three HDBR campaigns, one on women (n=8) in November 1998 and two on the same men (n=8) in December 1997 (without countermeasure) and January 1998 (with thigh-cuffs countermeasure), according to a crossover design. Body composition was assessed before and after 6 days of HDBR. %BF was derived from the biceps, triceps, sub-scapular and sup-iliac ST according to Durnin and Wormersly (1974). Fat-free mass was measured on the same day by H2 18O dilution and fat mass was calculated by the difference with body mass and expressed as a percentage. Based on precision tests, the minimum measurable change by ST was 1.1%BF for single measurement point. Both intercepts (F (4,30)=0.89, P=0.45) and slopes (F (4,30)=0.74; P=0.57) of the ST versus dilution relationships were not affected by the periods (December vs January), experimental conditions (control vs HDBR vs HDBR + thigh cuffs) or sex allowing the derivation of a common relationship %BF(st)=0.94 x %BF(dil) (F (1,47)=97.9, P<0.0001; non-significant intercept excluded) with a bias between methods of -1.7+/-2.0 %BF (95% CI: -5.8, 2.4 %BF). ST can be used to measure %BF during HDBR provided great care is placed on training and changes are higher than 1.1 %BF. If the method can be applied for in-flight energy balance monitoring given the high observed energy deficit, a tight monitoring of the individual nutritional status as needed during simulation appears, however, dubious based on this solely method.

Energy expenditure and balance during spaceflight on the space shuttle.

The objectives of this study were as follows: 1) to measure human energy expenditure (EE) during spaceflight on a shuttle mission by using the doubly labeled water (DLW) method; 2) to determine whether the astronauts were in negative energy balance during spaceflight; 3) to use the comparison of change in body fat as measured by the intake DLW EE, 18O dilution, and dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) to validate the DLW method for spaceflight; and 4) to compare EE during spaceflight against that found with bed rest. Two experiments were conducted: a flight experiment (n = 4) on the 16-day 1996 life and microgravity sciences shuttle mission and a 6 degrees head-down tilt bed rest study with controlled dietary intake (n = 8). The bed rest study was designed to simulate the flight experiment and included exercise. Two EE determinations were done before flight (bed rest), during flight (bed rest), and after flight (recovery). Energy intake and N balance were monitored for the entire period. Results were that body weight, water, fat, and energy balance were unchanged with bed rest. For the flight experiment, decreases in weight (2.6 +/- 0.4 kg, P < 0.05) and N retention (-2. 37 +/- 0.45 g N/day, P < 0.05) were found. Dietary intake for the four astronauts was reduced in flight (3,025 +/- 180 vs. 1,943 +/- 179 kcal/day, P < 0.05). EE in flight was 3,320 +/- 155 kcal/day, resulting in a negative energy balance of 1,355 +/- 80 kcal/day (-15. 7 +/- 1.0 kcal. kg-1. day-1, P < 0.05). This corresponded to a loss of 2.1 +/- 0.4 kg body fat, which was within experimental error of the fat loss determined by 18O dilution (-1.4 +/- 0.5 kg) and DEXA (-2.4 +/- 0.4 kg). All three methods showed no change in body fat with bed rest. In conclusion, 1) the DLW method for measuring EE during spaceflight is valid, 2) the astronauts were in severe negative energy balance and oxidized body fat, and 3) in-flight energy (E) requirements can be predicted from the equation: E = 1.40 x resting metabolic rate + exercise.

Energy expenditure in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) during spaceflight using doubly labeled water (2H2(18)O)

The mean daily energy expenditure rates of three rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) were determined during spaceflight on the joint US-Russian Cosmos 2044 and 2229 missions by the doubly labeled water (2H2(18)O) method. In-flight values were compared with ground data obtained from seven measurements taken from six chair-adapted control monkeys. The mean energy expenditure for the ground control determinations was 94.5 +/- 6.4 kcal.kg-1.day-1 (n = 6). The mean in-flight energy expenditure, 55.1 +/- 8.0 kcal.kg-1.day-1 (n = 3), was significantly less than the mean ground control value (P < 0.05). These data suggest that energy expenditure in restrained rhesus monkeys is significantly reduced during spaceflight.

In-flight energy calibration for the X-ray and gamma-ray spectrometers on the solar-A satellite

The electronically gated in-flight energy calibration is applied to the X-ray and gamma-ray spectrometers on a SOLAR-A satellite. The NaI X-ray spectrometer covering the 20–400 keV energy band is calibrated by an 241Am radioactive source which decays by the simultaneous emission of 60 keV X-rays and 5.48 MeV alpha-particles. The X-ray calibration spectrum is accumulated in coincidence with an event tag pulse generated by the simultaneous detection of an X-ray and an alpha-particle. The BGO gamma-ray spectrometer covering the 0.2–10 MeV energy band is calibrated by a 60Co radioactive source which decays by the simultaneous emission of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV gamma-rays and a beta-ray (maximum energy is 313 keV). The gamma-ray calibration spectrum is accumulated in a manner similar to the X-ray spectrometer. Since the present method enables to select the calibration pulse without the disadvantage of introducing extra pulses, it is suitable for a space experiment where external conditions and background counting rates can significantly change.

γ Rays of 1 to 10 MeV from the Crab and Cygnus Regions

As part of a study of techniques for γ-ray astronomy in the MeV energy range, several balloon payloads have been launched by the Southampton University group from Palestine, Texas. The following results are from a payload launched on September 23, 1972, which floated at a depth of 8 g cm−2 for 7 h from 0600 GMT. The payload consisted of an anticollimation telescope using two 12 cm by 5 cm NaI(Tl) crystals side by side, each viewed by a single 12 cm phot omul tiplier and protected from charged particles by a plastic scintillator box. These detectors were made directional for low energy γ rays by a lead occulting disk, 18 cm in diameter and 10 cm thick, placed 50 cm above the crystals, the axis of the whole assembly being pointed so as to track a celestial source continuously. The occulting disk alternated between positions over each detector at intervals of 5 min. In-flight energy calibration was carried out using a 223Th γ-ray source. In addition to the γ-ray detectors, the payload contained a thin NaI(Tl) detector sensitive to 100 keV X rays. The null results obtained on some celestial sources indicating that the movement of the lead disk did not, by itself, affect the counting rate of a detector.