Background/Objective: The implantation of misleading information in memory is a highly relevant topic due to its implications for the evaluation of witness memory. Suggestion has been the most studied means of implantation. Therefore, a meta-analytical study was designed to estimate the effect size of suggestion in the implantation of misleading information in testimonies and memories, and the moderators of such effect. Method: A total of 17 studies designed to evaluate the implantation of suggested memories or the mere acceptance of misleading information were selected. Bare-bones meta-analyses of experiments were performed. Results: The results showed a significantly positive, generalizable across studies, and more than large overall mean effect size (d = 1.68 95% CI [1.47, 1.89]) for the implantation of misleading information due to suggestion. When converted to probabilities, the estimated likelihood of implanting any externally suggested information was 31.3%. Likewise, the results evidenced a significant, positive, generalizable among studies, and more than large average effect size for the moderators: degree of suggestion (d = 1.60, 95% CI [1.47, 1.89]), likelihood of suggestion (d = 1.68, 95% CI [1.48, 1.88]), direct participation in the event (d = 1.31, 95%CI [1.13, 1.49]), indirect participation in the event (d = 2.00, 95% CI [1.77, 2.23]), suggestion through the individual differences paradigm (d = 1.44, 95% CI [1.23, 1.65]), and suggestion through the misinformation paradigm (d = 2.03, 95% CI[1.82, 2.24]). Conclusions: The implications of the results for the evaluation of the reliability of child testimony are discussed. Antecedentes/objetivo: La implantación de información engañosa en la memoria es un tópico de gran relevancia dadas las implicaciones que tiene para la evaluación de la memoria de los testigos. La sugestión ha sido el medio de implantación más estudiado. Por ello, se ha diseñado un estudio meta-analítico para estimar el tamaño del efecto de la sugestión en la implantación de información engañosa en el testimonio y las memorias, y los moderadores de tal efecto. Método: Se seleccionaron un total de 17 estudios diseñados para la evaluación de la implantación de memorias sugestionadas o la mera aceptación de información capciosa. Se ejecutaron meta-análisis de experimentos bare-bones. Resultados: Los resultados mostraron un tamaño del efecto promedio global (d = 1.68, IC 95% [1.47, 1.89]) significativo, positivo, generalizable entre los estudios y de una magnitud más que grande para la implantación de información engañosa debida a la sugestión. Convertido el efecto en probabilidades, la probabilidad estimada de implantación de cualquier información externa sugestionada fue del 31.3%. Asimismo, los resultados evidenciaron un tamaño del efecto promedio significativo, positivo, generalizable y más que grande para los moderadores grado de sugestión (d = 1.60, IC 95% [1.10, 2.10]), probabilidad de sugestión (d = 1.68, IC 95% [1.48, 1.88]), participación directa en el evento (d = 1.31, IC 95% [1.13, 1.49]), participación indirecta en el evento (d = 2.00, IC 95% [1.77, 2.23]), sugestión mediante el paradigma de diferencias individuales (d = 1.44, IC 95% [1.23, 1.65]) y sugestión mediante el paradigma de desinformación (d = 2.03, IC 95% [1.82, 2.24]). Conclusiones: Se discuten las implicaciones de los resultados para la evaluación de la fiabilidad del testimonio infantil.

This paper emphasizes the need for objectivity and standardized methodologies in the forensic sciences, particularly physical anthropology. To this end, a review of important events in scientific evidence admissibility law, particularly the standards set in the case of Daubert v. Merrell-Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 1993, is presented. The method of confirming a putative identification by visual comparison of antemortem and postmortem frontal sinus radiographs is examined in light of current admissibility standards. The technique is revealed to have a number of shortcomings, including a lack of empirical testing, no estimates of potential error rates, no standards controlling the technique's operation, and no objective determination standards. These shortcomings may, in some instances, prevent resulting conclusions from being admissible evidence. It is suggested that some methods (including frontal sinus comparison) may require more rigorous testing in order to meet these new and stricter standards.

Investigated the abilities of children with mental retardation to remember the details of a personally experienced event. A simulated health check was administered to 20 children with mental retardation and 40 normally developing children, half matched on mental age (MA) and half matched on chronological age (CA) with the children with mental retardation. The children's memory was assessed immediately after the health check and 6 weeks later. Overall, the children with mental retardation accurately recalled the health check features, provided detail, and resisted misleading questions about features that did not occur. The group with mental retardation performed similarly to the MA matches on virtually all of the memory variables. The children with mental retardation performed worse than the CA matches on most of the memory variables, although they were able to recall a similar number of features. The findings are discussed in terms of the ability of children with mental retardation to provide accurate testimony.

Because medical procedures involve bodily contact and may evoke discomfort or pain, they are in some ways analogous to instances of child abuse. As such, the study of children's memory for medical experiences provides information that is relevant for an understanding of their abilities to provide accurate eyewitness testimony. This article summarizes the results of a number of studies that have explored children's long-term retention of details of routine physical examinations as well as other less familiar and more stressful medical procedures. The goal of this work has been to chart age differences in the retention and forgetting of pediatric check-ups and to examine some of the variables that affect children's memory for the details of medical procedures. The results of this research program are discussed in the context of four general themes about the flow of information within the memory system. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Interviewing children about trauma: Problems with “specific” questions

Abstract A methodological ambiguity is described that may well adversely affect the quality of information provided by young child witnesses. Because the information children provide during interviews is sometimes the only evidence in forensic situations, its quality is a serious concern. “Specific” questions are often necessary to elicit enough information, but we describe a confusion between wh‐ questions (which request particular information) and yes/no questions (which merely require confirmation or disconfirmation). Research in which children are systematically interviewed about stressful medical experiences is reviewed, and we present results of a pilot investigation in which 2‐ to 13‐year‐old children were interviewed about traumatic injuries necessitating hospital treatment. Yes/no questions were problematic for preschoolers. Implications for testimony are discussed.

A methodological ambiguity is described that may well adversely affect the quality of information provided by young child witnesses. Because the information children provide during interviews is sometimes the only evidence in forensic situations, its quality is a serious concern. "Specific" questions are often necessary to elicit enough information, but we describe a confusion between wh- questions (which request particular information) and yes/no questions (which merely require confirmation or disconfirmation). Research in which children are systematically interviewed about stressful medical experiences is reviewed, and we present results of a pilot investigation in which 2- to 13-year-old children were interviewed about traumatic injuries necessitating hospital treatment. Yes/no questions were problematic for preschoolers. Implications for testimony are discussed.

Protecting sexually abused children hinges on their ability to remember and report events surrounding alleged incidents of abuse. This study was designed to provide information on young children's memory and recall of stressful experiences. Children's memory for features of a voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG) experience were examined because this invasive procedure is similar in many respects to incidents of sexual abuse. The recall performance of 24 3- to 7-year-olds was assessed immediately after the VCUG and after a delay of 6 weeks using a hierarchically structured interview protocol including both open-ended and more specific questions. To assess correlations between recall performance and distress, behavioral and physiological indicators of distress were measured during the procedure. The children remembered 88% of the component features of the VCUG experience at the initial assessment and 83% after 6 weeks. Behavioral and salivary cortisol measures indicated that the children were distressed during the procedure. Although several of the behavioral measures were correlated negatively with the amount of recall, levels of salivary cortisol did not predict the children's recall performance. The findings suggest that, under some conditions, young children can provide accurate and detailed reports of personally experienced distressful events.

Abstract This study was prompted by an interest in children's abilities to testify in legal settings. Based on the fundamental premise that children cannot provide accurate testimony about events that cannot be remembered, this investigation focused on 3‐ and 6‐year‐olds' memory of a salient, personally experienced event. The event selected was that of a visit to the doctor for a physical examination. Children at both ages remembered most of the features of the check‐up at an immediate memory test, although the older children performed somewhat better than younger children. In addition, the performance of the 3‐year‐olds decreased over delay intervals of 1 and 3 weeks, whereas that of the 6‐year‐olds remained constant over this period. Moreover, at all assessment points the older children provided more information in response to open‐ended general questions than did the younger children. Both groups of children were quite good at giving accurate responses to misleading questions, although the 3‐year‐olds performed below the level of 6‐year‐olds. The need for further controlled studies of children's memory capabilities is discussed.