Implications For Music Education Research Articles

Open ends and means: Inquiry as a link between formal music concepts and informal music learning

There is currently considerable interest in strengthening the connections between formal music education and informal, self-motivated music practices. Participants in this study were adults who were self-motivated to learn formal music concepts, but had encountered barriers to doing so independently. The study offered them individual online tutoring, with the goal of better understanding the barriers that may arise when adults try to use open online resources for independent learning. Nine out of 11 long-term participants attained or made appreciable progress toward their goals. Activities that reflected their immediate goals and employed familiar tools and concepts appeared to be crucial to participants’ development of useful connections between informal learning situations and the relevant formal concepts, with implications for music education as well as for open online education.

Peer Mentoring and Peer Tutoring Among K–12 Students: A Literature Review

The purpose of this literature review is to examine research on peer mentoring among K–12 students to assist practitioners with how to incorporate these instructional techniques into their own music programs. Primary themes across the music education literature of peer mentoring include the role of music teachers, the role of students as they learn from each other, and the role of socialization. This article concludes with implications for music educators and recommendations for future studies to inform practice and to guide further research into peer mentoring among K–12 students.

A Phenomenology of One Southeastern African American Church Choir

Abstract The purpose of this phenomenological inquiry was to describe the essence of long-term singing experiences for participants in one Southeastern African American church choir in the United States. Specific areas of inquiry included how participants described the evolution of their singing over their long-term membership, how they articulated pivotal moments that connected singing experiences to self-growth, and what kept them singing in the same church choir. The data collection included 24 individual interviews with 18 different participants and 16 observations over a 3-month period. Participants ranged from 25 to 62 years of membership. Data sources included memos, artifacts, interview transcripts, and field notes. Using embodiment as a lens, data were reduced, horizontalized, and synthesized into a textural portrayal, structural description, and essence. Findings indicated 6 textural themes beginning with Themes 1 and 2, “growing as young people” and “building and sustaining the choir family.” Participants highlighted the importance of their directors within Theme 3, “inspiring directors with vision” and how music related to their self-growth in Theme 4, “becoming part of my music.” The final two textural themes, “contributing and ministering to others” and “loving God and gospel music” represented the strongest descriptions of participant lived experience as long-term members of the choir. The essence of participants’ lived experiences was development of the spiritual self. Implications for music education as spiritually relevant pedagogy are offered.

Inside the fences: Pedagogical practices and purposes of songwriting in an adult male U.S. state prison

We examined pedagogical strategies for facilitating and developing songwriting skills with 17 males incarcerated at a U.S. medium security prison. We also investigated the participants’ sense of self-worth, purpose, and social adjustment related to their participation in the songwriters’ workshops. The songwriting sessions spanned over two 13-week, 60-minute workshops and one nine-week 90-minute workshop, totaling 35 weeks. Using grounded theory procedures, we analyzed four types of data: 42 sets of original lyrics, written reflections from three instructors, transcriptions of four workshop sessions, and narrative data from participants, totaling 127 single-spaced pages. Our findings indicated that the collaborative and social nature of the songwriting workshops provided a supportive atmosphere where participants generated new songs for enjoyment and expression. Participants wrote about struggles and hardships, especially relationship problems, and our data suggested that the discussions about song topics helped them cope with their incarceration. Implications for music education are discussed.

Maschine-itivity: How I found my creativity using a digital sampling device to compose music

Abstract The ubiquity of digital music technology has prompted researchers and scholars to examine how music educators might support music learning that encourages creativity through the use of these mediums. Infusing technology into current curricular offerings offers one avenue in fostering a diversity of music learning experiences for students when teachers are interested in developing creativity in their students. Research examining current practising teachers and their experiences with digital sampling and beat making technology is limited. The purpose of this research was to offer my experiences learning, writing and sharing music using a sampling and beat-making device called the Maschine. This auto-ethnography uses Sawyer’s eight stages of the creative process as the theoretical framework to guide analysis of my creativity. The aims of this research were to: (1) reflect on the creative process involved in making music on a digital sampling and beat-making device; (2) provide a contextual understanding of my challenges and successes along the way; and (3) suggest implications for both current and future music teachers interested in learning to use this type of technology in their music teaching to provide contemporary music making experiences for their students. Results suggest that vernacular and informal music learning strategies were common over the 14-week semester, as YouTube tutorials supported my learning. My creativity occurred in small incremental steps and yielded three completed compositions at the culmination of the project. A conceptual model of the creative process is proposed, outlining the non-linearity of my creative process. Implications for music education are offered in conclusion.

The Role of Metacognitive Strategies in Learning Music: A Multiple Case Study

The positive role of metacognition in music learning and practice is well assessed, but the role of musicians’ metacognitive skills in such a context is not yet clear. Teachers often state that they apply a metacognitive approach during their lessons, but students fail to acknowledge it and report that they become metacognitive learners thanks to their own practice. In this multiple case observational study the spontaneous metacognitive behaviour of a teacher during four piano lessons with expert and novice students was analysed. Data supported the notion that teachers use metacognitive strategies during their teaching practice, but students are not aware of this because a metacognitive focus on strategies, as well as a strong emphasis on monitoring, appears to be lacking. Teachers are also able to differentiate their teaching behaviour between expert and novice students. Students’ age, however, affects teachers’ behaviour more deeply than expertise. Implications for music education are discussed, highlighting the main issues that can be derived from the results and how they can be effectively used to enhance professional development and improve practice in music education.

Concept Teaching in Instrumental Music Education

This article is a review of research literature on the teaching of concepts in instrumental music education. It is organized in four parts (a) the value of concept teaching in large instrumental ensembles, (b) time spent teaching concepts during rehearsals, (c) approaches to concept teaching, and (d) implications for music education. Research has indicated that there is value to teaching conceptually. Time invested in teaching concepts has not been found to detract from performance goals; on the contrary, performance may be enhanced. Musical concepts may be taught via positive and negative instances of concepts, music terms and descriptions, modeling, and music literature. More research on concept teaching in instrumental music is warranted.

Teaching popular music: Investigating music educators’ perceptions and preparation

The purpose of this study was to investigate in-service music teachers’ perceptions of popular music in the classroom and to examine their own preparation to teach popular music. A sample of music teachers, drawn from two regional chapters of the American Orff-Schulwerk Association, completed a researcher-designed survey instrument. Results suggest that these teachers perceived popular music to be an effective instructional tool in the music classroom, although their responses suggest that they perceived it to be appropriate for older students and in certain classroom settings only. In addition, the sample reported a lack of training in popular music pedagogy and responded that they generally felt unprepared to teach popular music. Among three types of preparation, they provided significantly higher preparation ratings for informal experiences, followed by performance-oriented experiences and formal educational experiences. Implications for music educators and music teacher educators are discussed.

Predicting preservice music teachers’ performance success in instrumental courses using self-regulated study strategies and predictor variables

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which self-regulated study strategies and predictor variables predict performance success in instrumental performance college courses. Preservice music teachers (N = 123) from a music education department in two state universities in Turkey completed the Music Self-Regulated Studying Strategies Survey (MSRSSS) developed from theoretical models of self-regulation in music. The MSRSSS displayed a three-factor solution that included strategies related to planning, monitoring, and evaluation stages of study. An examination of psychometric properties revealed evidence for scale reliability and validity. Multiple regression analyses indicated that monitoring but not planning was a statistically significant predictor of performance success in instrumental performance courses over and above the effects of Grade Point Average (GPA). Evaluation strategies were also significant in predicting performance success in instrumental courses but with an inverse relationship. Besides, academic success in theoretical courses as a predictor variable was the strongest predictor of performance success in instrumental courses. Findings and implications for music education are discussed.

Effects of music notation reinforcement on aural memory for melodies

The purpose of this study was to investigate effects of music notation reinforcement on aural memory for melodies. Participants were 41 undergraduate and graduate music majors in a within-subjects design. Experimental trials tested melodic memory through a sequence of target melodies, distraction melodies, and matched and unmatched answer choices. Target melodies were presented either aurally only, or aurally with matching notation. Results of a paired samples t-test revealed no significant difference in experimental test scores based on presentation format, suggesting that music notation reinforcement of melodies does not affect aural memory for those melodies. Recommendations for further research include an aural-visual melodic memory test paired with a survey of participant learning modalities; a survey of successful melodic memory strategies employed by aural skills students; and longitudinal studies of visual imagery applied to aural skills tasks. Implications for music education at all levels center on the need to cultivate strong cognitive relationships between visual and aural aspects of music.

Gender and Musical Instrument Stereotypes in Middle School Children

Previous studies have established that gender stereotypes are associated with children’s choice of musical instrument. Though some have suggested that these gender stereotypes may be trending toward change, other studies have indicated that gender stereotypes are long-standing and still very much at issue. This descriptive study of middle school band students ( N = 99) examined instrument gender stereotypes using improved methods of measurement and found evidence that instrument gender stereotypes remain entrenched and pose a persisting problem facing music educators. Importantly, younger and more inexperienced band members may be more open to counterstereotypical views. Suggested changes in research methods and directions for future study are discussed, as are implications for music educators.

Evaluating Graduate Education and Transcending Biases in Music Teachers' Professional Development

Research concerning professional development and its contribution to the formation of professional identity is prevalent in both general and music education. However, its implications for music educators in the context of graduate programs for music education are seldom discussed. This mixed-methods case study examined experienced music teachers' perceptions during and after participation in a two-year teacher-college graduate program for music education. These M.Ed. students ( n =22) underwent semi-structured interviews after Year 1 and completed closed and open questionnaires after Years 1 and 2, assessing students' evaluation of the experienced curriculum and of its contribution to their professional development, thereby eliciting biases regarding the characteristics of music teachers’professional identities. Content analysis of qualitative data yielded four global categories: music versus education, research relevance for music educators, desired curriculum, and community of learners. Qualitative and quantitative results revealed students' criticism of the experienced curriculum. Regarding the program's contribution (quantitative results), students reported developing more positive attitudes toward the pursuit of music education and research but reported only minimally changing their traditionally negative views about the relevance of research and educational theory to their training. Although students' behavioral practice changed significantly during graduate studies (quantitative results), changes did not achieve conscious awareness (thus were not evident in the qualitative and some quantitative results). Outcomes suggest that resolving the traditional conflict between the roles of educator and musician, and acceptance of the researcher role within one's multifaceted professional identity, may foster teachers' inquisitiveness and critical ability and may lead music educators to join in establishing a community that more unbiasedly espouses both music education and empirical inquiry.

Understanding music’s therapeutic efficacy: Implications for music education

In the current era of electronic domination of human experience, be it via cell phone and/or computer addiction, or the ubiquitous television, actual participation in music- making is less and less common for the average person, child or adult. Passive participation through listening is most often cited by people as their major experience with music in their lives. When asked if listening has therapeutic effects, it is rare for anyone to respond in the negative. Likewise, for performers/active participants in music- making, be it solitary or as part of a group, invariably an enhanced sense of well-being from the act of making music is reported.This paper addresses therapeutic aspects of musical participation (singing, clapping, playing an instrument, dancing, listening) by providing a historical overview (12th c to present) of attitudes toward music’s therapeutic effects. It argues that music exists through the interaction of our biological capacity to make music with our cultural circumstances. How individuals benefit in all aspects their being – physical, mental and emotional – from engaging in the act of making music is illustrated with examples from field research in southern Africa. Finally implications for Music Education are explored which emphasize how more comprehensive integration of music into the curriculum can serve as an antidote to the increasing isolation and alienation of modern life.

Teacher Perceptions of Memorization in String Instructional Settings: An Exploratory Study

Abstract The purpose of this study was to acquire baseline data regarding string instructors’ perceptions on the use of memorization in string instructional environments. The researchers surveyed string instructors (N = 126) from two midwestern states about memorization conceptualization, curricular importance, perceived benefits, personal level of ease and enjoyment, and application in string-based learning environments. Results indicated that the majority of string teachers perceive memorization as cognitive recall without the presence of visual stimuli. Although correct, this definition overlooks many other modes of cognitive encoding and retrieval associated with memorization. String teachers also reported supporting the use of aural and visual memorization strategies, but only used them rarely to teach fundamental technique, solo material, or specialty music. Additionally, string teachers may not recognize a standardized method of teaching memorization. Implications for music education are discussed.

What Research Reveals About School Jazz Education

Though jazz has been a part of many school music programs for more than 40 years, relatively little research on jazz education exists. Despite this scarcity, a comprehensive examination of the extant literature could serve to inform practice and guide future studies. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to analyze and synthesize the extant research on school jazz education. The first section addresses research as it applies to jazz ensembles in general, while the second section addresses the research as it applies to jazz improvisation in particular. The article concludes with implications for music education.

Subjective criteria for choice and aesthetic judgment of music: A comparison of psychology and music students

Previous research has highlighted the important role of choice in listeners’ responses to music, but relatively little is known about the subjective criteria on which listeners base their choices. Hence, the goal of this study was to make a first attempt to investigate the relative importance of various criteria in listeners’ choice and aesthetic judgment of music, and how the weighting of these criteria varies as a function of preferences for specific music genres, music education, and personality traits. These issues were explored by means of a 13-item questionnaire, which was administered to 72 Swedish participants (18–43 years old), who studied either psychology or music at a conservatory level. The results suggested that a range of criteria are important in both music choice and aesthetic judgment. As expected, there were many differences between psychology students and music students regarding their relative weighting of different criteria. In particular, psychology students tended to rate “extrinsic” choice criteria (e.g., “suits specific activities”) as opposed to “intrinsic” criteria (e.g., “interesting structure”) higher than did music students. Still, both groups rated the expression and arousal of emotions as the most important criteria for their music choice and aesthetic judgment. The results are discussed with regard to their implications for music education and future research on music preference and aesthetics.

Merit Pay and Music Education: A Motivation Perspective

Recently, state and federal legislators have emphasized teacher quality in their efforts to improve public education. Many reformers believe that merit pay may prove invaluable in attracting highly qualified educators to the workforce and retaining them, as well as in improving students’ test scores. While merit pay's ability to recruit and retain great teachers is as yet unproven, recent studies have found little evidence that merit pay improves students’ test scores. The following article seeks to inform merit pay policies by offering insight from research in educational psychology and outlining possible implications for music education.

An Analysis of Competency-Based Curriculum and its Implications for Music Education: Focused on UK and New Zealand

An Analysis of Competency-Based Curriculum and its Implications for Music Education: Focused on UK and New Zealand

Conference report: The Improvising Brain Symposium, 2013.

The Improvising Brain Symposium was held at Georgia State University in April 2012. The event attracted researchers, educators and students interested and involved in the research of the brain during music cognition and improvisation. This summary provides an overview of the symposium and details from the keynote address. It also summarizes additional research presented at the symposium that was not submitted for publication.Keywords: Improvising brain symposium, brain, research, improvisation, brain imagingMore than 50 researchers, educators, and graduate students in the disciplines of music education and music cognition gathered to discuss recent developments in the area of musical improvisation. The Improvising Brain Symposium (IBS) was held at Georgia State University (GSU) and Loudermilk Convention Center, in downtown Atlanta, GA, April 7 to 9, 2013. The event was organized by chair Dr. Martin Norgaard (GSU School of Music), supported by the GSU School of Music, GSU Neuroscience Institute, Center for Collaborative and International Arts (CENCIA), GSU Research Foundation, and Yamaha Corporation of America. The symposium featured an introductory summary of empirical research on the improvising brain, a keynote speaker, 18 research presentations, 11 poster presentations, a string master class, and a live research study. Jazz violinist Christian Howes and the Kevin Bale trio performed a jazz concert for attendees. The performance was recorded and notated by Dr. Norgaard and his research team who later interviewed the musicians on their improvisational choices. Dr. Robert Zatorre's (Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University) first keynote address set the stage for much of the research presented at the symposium. His discussion of developments of technology and his descriptions of brain activity, as understood through brain imagery (e.g., Zatorre, 2012), while engaging in music listening and performance added historical and theoretical context for the presentations that followed. He closed the symposium with a lecture on brain, behavior, and music. The purpose of this report is to provide a summary of research presentations that will not be published elsewhere in this edition.This report highlights a sampling of work presented at the IBS and is organized under two main themes (1) neurocognitive functions in musical improvisation, and (2) implications for music education. For additional information on the topics presented below and presentations from researchers not covered in this summary, visit the official Improvising Brain Symposium Web site (http://www.cas.gsu.edu/theimprovisingbrain/).The Improvising BrainAn overarching theme of much of the research presented was identifying and modeling brain activity related to musical improvisation. James Fidlon (University of Texas at Austin) opened the event with an overview of empirical research on the improvising brain. Fidlon recognized that many researchers have identified improvisation as a cultural phenomenon because of the interaction between mind and body, making empirical study difficult. However, he identified the cognitive and physical processes that have been successfully measured in empirical research. He described improvisation as a complex skill in which creativity, decisionmaking, sensory motor processing, expert performance abilities, and spontaneous behavior occur simultaneously. He outlined the tools and methodology currently used in improvisation research, including physiological data (brain imaging, neural activation), behavioral data (music performance notation), and qualitative data such as self-report and expert evaluation.Augusto Monk (University of Toronto, Canada) presented a model of improvisational intelligence derived from the multidimensional cognitive processes underlying the task. To explore the strategies involved, Monk interviewed 10 professional musicians after they each performed a solo improvisation, in a nonidiomatic format (free of musical restraints and implications, making all elemental choices available). …

Exploring Wholeness in Music Teacherss Lives

This qualitative research explored how the retelling of a life story influenced teachers’ self-understanding. Informed by the disciplines of psychology, anthropology, and philosophy I constructed a conceptual framework of life as a continuous narrative, reflected and focused by past and anticipated experiences. This framework was informed by Dewey’s concept of continuous flowing life experiences, Bakhtin’s understanding of the dialogic nature of those experiences, Husserl’s explanation of the role of memory in that experiential dialogue and Bruner’s writings regarding life-as-narrative. Through this lens, the potential for wholeness of identity was explored by making visible the connections between past and present life experiences and observing how each impacts understanding of the other. Using the narrative inquiry method, life-story interview, the researcher wrote guided autobiographies with three music teachers. Individual interviews with participants were conducted, facilitating their storytelling. From these interviews, each participant’s life story was written in his or her own words. Interpretations from theories that arose from their stories were offered. Viewed through Bruner’s metaphor of participants’ canons (how they believed the world was) and exceptionalities (the ways their lives grew away from their canons), the research suggested that each lived experience informs and reframes another, making the aim not reconciliation, but accepting that the process of becoming is one’s Self, and that our identity is not found in an event, or an understanding, but a continuous act of invention and discovery. Among conclusions was the importance of life reflections as a continuing tool in music teacher personal and professional development. Specific implications for music educators, music teacher educators and for future research were also discussed.