Bus Rapid Transit Implementation Research Articles

Why do paratransit operators resist participation in bus rapid transit? Case evidence from Bogota, Mexico City, Johannesburg and Lagos

ABSTRACT Public transport in cities of the Global South is mainly provided by paratransit operators who self-regulate their services in the absence of adequate formal transport supply and due to weak or no formal regulatory framework and enforcement. Paratransit operators compete with each other for passengers as every passenger translates into profit. Governments in the Global South have sought to reform public transport services through Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) to regulate and ensure efficiency, address the problems of drivers competition and negative externalities associated with paratransit operations. Paratransit operators have been considered as one of the barriers to public transport reforms such as BRT without much consideration for their style of operations. This neglect has contributed to their resistance and low interest in participating in BRT and has even led to opposition. Consequently, non-consideration of incumbent operators in the implementation of transit reforms has been one important reason for delay or failure in their introduction. In this study, we identify reasons why paratransit operators resist and show low interest in BRT even in situations where public institutions have opted not to replace them but rather invite them to participate in the reforms. The basis is a case study analysis of four cities with different characteristics and different BRT implementation strategies where paratransit operators showed resistance and low interest to participate. We identify (1) loss of autonomy, flexibility and established practices/routines, (2) financial and economic risk avoidance and (3) lack of trust in governments who initiate reforms as a basis for their resistance and low interest. These findings are theoretically substantiated by organisational management and social psychology concepts that explain resistance to change. Understanding and recognising these reasons may help planners in designing more appropriate strategies for paratransit reforms.

Toward the Integration of Paratransit in Transportation Planning in African Cities

This research examines the history of transportation planning in African cities and how paratransit has been taken into account in the production of planning documents. On the rise since the 1980s, paratransit today is the most common motorized transportation mode in many African cities. The dominant approach among policymakers has been to limit paratransit, in some cases even to ban it. The question this research explores is how distrust of paratransit, and underappreciation of its intrinsic qualities, have been reflected in urban transportation plans. Having selected two cities—Cape Town, South Africa and Nairobi, Kenya—we conducted an in-depth analysis of planning documents at national and local levels. South Africa has a long tradition of transportation planning, with documentation available at the national, provincial, and municipal levels. In the 1990s, paratransit was a national-level concern. It gradually became a municipal issue with the implementation of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT). In Kenya, planning has a shorter history. Development agencies (e.g., Japanese International Cooperation Agency [JICA]) have played a key role in recent planning processes and encourage the formalization of paratransit. However, planning documents contain no explicit references to “matatus.” In both cities, the focus in the documents is still mainly on developing infrastructure rather than improving mobility. While the role of paratransit is increasingly recognized, this trend is still more apparent in regulation than in planning.

Bus Rapid Transit System: A Study of Sustainable Land-Use Transformation, Urban Density and Economic Impacts

Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) has shown significant growth in recent years, particularly in developing countries because of its cost-effectiveness. However, empirical evidence on land-use and economic impacts of BRT is limited. This study measures the sustainable land-use transformation, urban density, and economic impact witnessed after the development of BRT. Spatial analysis shows that BRT has the potential to simulate land-use transformation, however, the extent of transformation is context-dependent. Population density has increased from 268 persons/acre to 299 persons/acre. Besides land-use transformations, inward investments and extension of the labor market were also evident in areas served by BRT. The amount almost equal to US $140 million of inward investment was detected after implementation of BRT, which ultimately brought around 800 new employees from remote areas. An efficient land-use policy, streamlining these land-use transformations, and inward investments, can benefit from developing compact and sustainable neighborhoods. This study will help in the performance evaluation of BRT systems in developing countries for sustainable development.

Comparing traveler preferences for BRT and LRT systems in developing countries: Evidence from Multan, Pakistan

Abstract Rapid transit (RT) systems are becoming increasingly attractive in the developing world as they improve transportation and mobility conditions in urban areas, reduce motorization impacts and offer high quality, yet cost effective services to travelers. Light rail transit (LRT) and bus rapid transit (BRT) are RT systems that combine high capacity with relatively low investment costs, and as such, they are preferred in developing countries over regular metro systems. This paper investigates traveler preferences over alternative, planned rapid transit options for the city of Multan, Pakistan. The analysis is based on a household information survey with over 2300 questionnaires completed via personal interviews. Intention to pay for improved PT services and choice between LRT and BRT systems are investigated, using appropriate econometric models. Findings of this study can assist in better understanding the factors and their effect on choice between BRT and LRT in developing countries. Results show that potential travelers, who prefer LRT are willing to pay more for better public transport services. On the other hand, commuters and elders express a taste towards BRT implementation. Based on model outputs policy makers can develop targeted marketing policies in order to promote BRT/LRT implementation and attract candidate travelers from different groups, improving the possibility that users would support a BRT or LRT project.

An investigation of the open-system Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) network and property values: The case of Brisbane, Australia

Abstract This paper presents an investigation of the open-system Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) network on property values. An open-system BRT is one where bus feeder lines can enter and leave the BRT system, depending on their origin or destination so the BRT system infrastructure is shared by multiple routes. Brisbane, Australia is the empirical setting where smartcard (GoCard) data shows that 43% of bus passengers accessed the BRT system from feeder line stops. The paper investigates whether feeder line stops are important for increasing network accessibility in Brisbane’s open-system BRT. The hypothesis underpinning the study is that the improved accessibility resulting from an open-system BRT network results in higher property values within feeder line corridors in addition to simply around the BRT system. A Geographically Weighted Generalized Linear Model (GWGLM) is used to investigate property value premiums and their spatial distribution. GWGLM makes an improvement over Geographically Weighted Regression Model (GWR) by providing flexible local and global variable settings that decrease the risk of multi-collinearity in local models. The results identify property value uplift of up to 1.64% for every 100 m closer to feeder bus stops with frequent services in western and eastern Brisbane suburbs. Future studies should pay attention to the type of BRT operation (whether open- or closed-) in investigating the value of accessibility from BRT implementation. The results are policy relevant for the debate between whether BRT systems should be open or closed.

Factors Supporting The Implementation of Mass Transport System in Indonesia

Development of cities in Indonesia is along with increasing of community mobility that traveling from the surrounding district (hinterland) to the central city and its reverse. However dominanly city in Indonesia haven’t mass transport system. Unavailability of mass transport facilities also have taken place in Cilegon, one of industial city in Indonesia. The ratio of the use of public transport and private transport vehicles in Cilegon was 1:90. Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) was one alternative to serve good public transport. This research aims were look at factors that affect the success of the BRT application, and analyzing important factors that support BRT implementation. The approach on technology transfer was used in determining the characteristics of the transferor and transferee in supporting the implementation of mass transportation. Three parties involved in the transfer of technology in the BRT system were goverment, operator, and the community. This study procured there were nine factors supporting the implementation of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) System, they were transferor readiness, basic capabilities and adaptation to the mass transport system, transferee readiness, supporting regulations and policies, cooperation in the supervision and services development, counceling and community management, culture, confidence level, and local sub contract. Nine construct factors represented the data in terms of variance explained (61.802%). The transferor readiness was the main factor with percentage of explanation was 25.987%. The main role in technology transfer in BRT system was hold by the Government as a manager that playing role in achievement of targets 46.89%.

Impediments to the bus rapid transit implementation in developing countries – a typical evidence from Hanoi

ABSTRACTCreation of an effective bus rapid transit (BRT) system has never been an easy task, especially for the first case in a developing country, since a BRT project requires a considerable investment with participation from most walks of life. Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam, has omitted to overcome impediments in the maiden BRT establishment. The Hanoi BRT performs poorly with ridership at only 13,500 passengers per day. In this paper, it is scrutinized based on a series of barriers that are findings in previous works and in the shape of a theoretical framework with seven main categories, namely: (1) institutional and legislative context, (2) political leadership and commitment, (3) physical design and operation, (4) management of competing modes, (5) adequate funding, (6) public participation and (7) image promotion. Results emphasize that the difference in views of the funder and the local authorities on the BRT development is the chief barrier. Enforcement of the BRT lanes from motorcycles is demanding, which is distinct from cities previously creating BRT. The findings from the Hanoi BRT are not unique. Lessons drawn from its failure could be widely informative for the BRT establishment in a number of cities with similar contexts.

Evaluation of the impact of Bus Rapid Transit on air pollution in Mexico City

Mexico City's bus rapid transit (BRT) network, Metrobus, was introduced in an attempt to reduce congestion, increase city transport efficiency and cut air polluting emissions. In June 2005, the first BRT line in the metropolitan area began service. We use the differences-in-differences technique to make the first quantitative assessment of the policy impact of a BRT system on air polluting emissions. The air pollutants considered are carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOX), particulate matter of less than 10 μm (PM10), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). The ex-post analysis uses real field data from air quality monitoring stations for periods before and after BRT implementation. Results show that BRT constitutes an effective environmental policy, reducing emissions of CO, NOX, and PM10.

The effect of BRT implementation and streetscape redesign on physical activity: A case study of Mexico City

The reconfiguration of urban transportation system has emerged at the forefront of population-wide interventions to tackle physical inactivity. However, the effectiveness of these interventions remains understudied, especially in developing countries. Using self-reported physical activity data from pre- and post-intervention periods, this study examines the impact of bus rapid transit (BRT) and Complete Street implementation on walking and cycling levels of catchment area residents in Mexico City. Propensity score matching is applied to control for sociodemographics when evaluating intervention effects on walking for transport, walking for recreation, and cycling for transport. On average, individuals living in post-intervention conditions tend to achieve 29min more of walking for transport per week. However, the intervention effect on cycling for transport is insignificant. Using clustering techniques, intervention effects are evaluated across different sociodemographic groups. Women with low education experience the greatest increases in walking for transport. Sociodemographic clusters characterized by higher education experience improvements in recreational walking. Overall, BRT implementation and streetscape improvements enhance physical activity, specifically walking; and the impact of these interventions vary across different sociodemographic subgroups.

Assessing the potential of bus rapid transit-led network restructuring for enhancing affordable access to employment – The case of Johannesburg's Corridors of Freedom

Bus rapid transit (BRT) systems are often implemented as a means toward achieving regulatory reform in the transport sector. This often involves simultaneous formalisation of informal paratransit operators, and restructuring of public transport networks into centrally planned trunk-feeder systems. Such interventions might radically affect passenger access and social inclusion in ways that are as yet poorly understood. The paper uses a new accessibility metric called access envelopes to examine the potential impacts of various restructuring options on passengers' wage earning potential at job opportunities across space. The Corridors of Freedom initiative of the City of Johannesburg is used as a case study of a BRT-led restructuring exercise with land use and transport components. The study finds that it is hard to improve on the accessibility provided by the current near-ubiquitous informal minibus-taxi network. The only way that BRT implementation can improve access and affordability in the short run is by offering a fully integrated trunk with feeder services. Should such feeder services be supplied via a hybrid formal-informal approach, an integrated and progressive fare policy is critical to maintaining affordable access for poor passengers. A laissez-fare approach where taxis are allowed to provide ad hoc feeder services without any fare integration, is likely to decrease affordable access.

Implementation of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) on an optimal segment of a long regular bus route

ABSTRACTMajor public transit routes evolve overtime due to changes in demand caused by variations, for example, in land use, household income. As well there are demand/supply interactions due to implementation of new transit technologies such as Light Rail Transit or Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) and/or changes in mode of service, for example, skip-stop operations. Planning for such transitions must be done carefully and well in advance to enable on-time implementation. In this paper, we consider the transition from a long, regular bus route in a corridor to a route with a limited stop BRT along a segment of the corridor and a modified regular bus service along its full length. This problem is often faced by transit agencies when they try to make decisions regarding the design parameters of a BRT service. This transition can increase the average speed and maximum possible passenger flow on the route. The proposed approach optimizes the headways of the regular and BRT routes, and chooses the termini of the BRT segment as well as the limited BRT stops. Priority for BRT service is given to O–D pairs with a high value of passenger-hours, essentially the ‘product of the travel demand and the travel time’. Total optimal system costs before and after the mode transition is considered through analytical modelling, and a simple equation is derived for the difference. If the new optimal total system cost, including costs associated with passenger in-vehicle travel time, waiting time, vehicle operating costs, and system capital costs, is lower, the transition is favoured. Insights into the proposed transition are provided through the analytical modelling approach.

Evaluation of GPS-Based Transit Signal Priority for Mixed-Traffic Bus Rapid Transit

GPS-based transit signal priority (TSP) is a new type of transit preferential tool being considered in many North American cities. With GPS detection and advanced communications, GPS-based TSP provides flexible and conditional signal priority to transit vehicles. This is a relatively new system with limited field implementations and evaluations. The research in this study used microscopic simulation, to create a set of TSP scenarios for a 3-mi bus corridor and evaluated the influences of GPS-based TSP on transit and traffic operations. The simulation network was the 3300 South corridor, including side streets, in Salt Lake County, Utah. A proposal was evaluated to upgrade the Utah Transit Authority Bus Route 33 operating along the corridor into a bus rapid transit (BRT) line running in mixed traffic. Eight simulation scenarios were created to cover ( a) current field conditions, ( b) regular bus with traditional TSP implementation, ( c) regular bus with GPS-based TSP, ( d) BRT implementation with no TSP, ( e) BRT with traditional TSP implementation, ( f) BRT with GPS-based TSP, ( g) BRT with conditional TSP, and ( h) BRT with multiconditional TSP implementation. The evaluation included transit and nontransit operations, and the impacts on side-street traffic. The results show that GPS-based TSP performed as effectively as did traditional TSP. Conditional and multi-conditional TSP strategies showed benefits in providing the transit system considerable delay reduction (13% and 3%, respectively) and travel time savings (7% and 3%, respectively) while having the smallest impacts on side-street traffic (3% and 1% increase in delay, respectively) compared with other TSP strategies.

Bus rapid transit as a neoliberal contradiction

Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) is being implemented as a neoliberal project, but it creates contradictions that challenge the premise of neoliberalism. BRT projects are affordable rapid transit infrastructure, but they are also an impetus to restructure the urban bus sector in developing cities with informal mass transport. The dominant model of BRT implementation creates a market for bus service from large private companies where the government takes on the risk and brands the service as part of the city's attempt to be a ‘world class’ city that can attract mobile capital. However, BRT and the formalization of the bus sector can increase the power of urban residents by firmly putting transport in the public sphere; workers by increasing the incentives for collective action; and bus riders by prioritizing space for buses over cars. But these are only openings that require action to take advantage of the contradictions.

Exploring Bus Rapid Transit passenger travel behaviour using big data

Over the past two decades, a growing international trend has been the implementation of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) as a cost-effective way to enhance urban public transport (UPT) service quality and progress towards sustainable urban transport. To date, in excess of 40 cities worldwide operate BRT within their UPT networks. Despite the international prominence of BRT systems, there has been limited in-depth investigation of their spatial-temporal dynamics. Drawing on a case study BRT system, Brisbane, Australia, we apply a geo-visualisation-based method to a large smart card database to examine spatial-temporal dynamics. The conditional flow-maps (or flow-comaps) are created to visually compare the spatial trajectories of BRT trips and other bus-based trips and their variation by calendar events (i.e., a workday, a weekend, a school holiday and a public holiday). The results highlight (1) marked differences between BRT-based trips to those bus trips undertaken on the broader UPT network; (2) spatial heterogeneity in BRT trips; and (3) the potential of drawing on ‘big data’ to support evidence-based BRT planning. These findings render important implications with the capacity to inform future BRT strategy as it relates to service management and infrastructure expansion.

The economics and engineering of bus stops: Spacing, design and congestion

This paper re-considers the problem of choosing the number of bus stops along urban routes, first by estimating the probability of stopping in low demand markets, and second by analysing the interplay between bus stop size, bus running speed, spacing and congestion in high demand markets. A comprehensive review of the theory and practice on the location and spacing of bus stops is presented. Using empirical data from Sydney, Australia, we show that the widely used Poisson model overestimates the probability of stopping in an on-call bus stopping regime, and consequently underestimates the optimal number of bus stops that should be designed. For fixed-stop services, we show that bus running speed, frequency and dwell time are crucial to determining the relationship between bus stop spacing and demand, with bus stop congestion in the form of queuing delays playing a key role. In particular, we find that bus stop spacing should be decreased if demand increases at a constant bus running speed; however, if both bus running speed and the speed of the passenger boarding process increase, then the distance between bus stops should be kept long even at high demand levels, a result that is consistent with the implementation of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems that feature high bus running speeds and long distances between stops relative to conventional bus services.

IMPLEMENTASI KEBIJAKAN BUS RAPID TRANSIT (BRT) TRANS SEMARANG DI KOTA SEMARANG

Semarang city including the city experienced a fairly complicated transport problems, particularly road transport. Congestion in major cities, roads damaged, the terminal does not support, a growing number of vehicles, is not in line with the increase in capacity and access opening. As part of the effort to solve the congestion problem, the central government through the Ministry of Transportation propose the implementation of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT). The purpose of this study is to describe how the implementation of the BRT program in the city of Semarang and if it is in accordance with the applicable rules and to find out what are the constraints related to or are being faced in the implementation of BRT in the city of Semarang. This study used a qualitative approach with managers and HR Public Service Agency (BLU) Trans Semarang as the interviewer. The results in the development of BRT Trans Semarang constraints experienced by other anatar limited land BRT shelter placement on the right of way, the understanding of the shelter as utulitas by Highways that shelter placement should require permits, can not fulfill the contract mechanism plural, then the auction / tender providers services each year so that continuity of care is constrained at the beginning of the year, the limited ability of local budgets for fleet investment, travel speed bus yet eligible (still too soon exceed 8 km / h because of the standards set for congested areas or standard traffic mix is 10-12 km / h, the number of passengers has not been eligible for the hall I the average number of passengers per day by 5419 as much as standard from 1000 to 1200 and for corridor II of 2930 passengers per day with a standard 500-600 passengers per day. Suggestions presented in this study is the need for fleet expansion given the large number of passengers per day to meet the standards set by the Director General of Communication and Information, need to be reviewed on the performance of the crew bus driver, especially considering the speed of the vehicle exceeds the Directorate General of Land Transportation Standards. This is certainly endanger passengers and crew of the bus itself, need to increase coordination with relevant parties about the existence of shelters that shelter is expected to be in a strategic location, if necessary, plus amusing shleter to increase the capacity of passengers waiting for Bus Trans Semarang, facilities note the presence in the shelter as a place to sit or read media so that passengers feel comfortable.

The lurch towards formalisation: Lessons from the implementation of BRT in Johannesburg, South Africa

The City of Johannesburg, South Africa, implemented the first phase of its Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system named Rea Vaya between 2009 and 2011. The system design and organisational arrangements drew heavily on precedents from South America, especially insofar as BRT is used as an instrument for securing the transformation and formalisation of a fragmented and problematic informal public transport industry. Despite the inevitable transition problems, the formalisation scheme appears to be generally successful – an outcome that surprised many analysts as it follows a long history of mistrust, resistance, and unsuccessful interventions between government and the minibus taxi industry. The paper offers an analysis of the reasons for the successful transformation of participating taxi operators, by using a life-cycle analogy. We argue that the minibus-taxi industry in South Africa has reached a state of stasis and maturity, with limited opportunities for further growth in its present form. BRT, as it is implemented locally, offers opportunities for re-invention – for moving onto new a potential growth trajectory – by overcoming the binding constraints of informality and by opening up new markets to operators. The life-cycle analysis also offers some insights into critical success factors that, if not met in the long run, could jeopardise the longevity and scalability of the formalisation project. The paper concludes with insights regarding the planning and management of BRT systems to maximise their potential for leveraging the formalisation of informal operators, both in South Africa and in other developing countries.

Bus Rapid Transit implementation in Beijing: An evaluation of performance and impacts

Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems are undergoing rapid development in many countries due to the unique characteristics of this form of mass transit. In China, BRT schemes are being adopted as a key strategy for relieving traffic problems. As a case-study, this paper examines the performance and impacts of BRT in Beijing, the first full-featured BRT system in China. It considers in turn the role of ITS technology in influencing the operational efficiency, technical performance and cost issues associated with BRT. Particular attention is given to the consequent impacts of BRT on travel behaviour change, traffic environment and property development. While some challenges remain, the early performance of BRT suggests that it is one of the key measures for promoting sustainable mobility.

Engaging the paratransit sector in Cape Town on public transport reform: Progress, process and risks

The South African government in 2006 initiated an urban public transport reform programme reliant on the introduction of new bus rapid transit (BRT) systems. Affected paratransit operators can opt to be incorporated in these systems by forming new operating companies, but must withdraw their existing services from proposed routes. Cape Town's first phase of BRT operations came online in 2011, and operator engagement has focussed on this phase. The attitudes within this city's paratransit sector in relation to future phases, and to the broader reform policy, remain largely untested. In view of this sector's past resistance to government-led proposals, and the current phase avoiding areas with the highest concentrations of operators, the current engagement process's outcomes may not be adequate indicators of future prospects.In this paper the authors discuss the details of the offer that has been made to paratransit operators, progress towards finalising negotiations around that offer, risk factors inherent in the current approach to engagement, and issues that have emerged around the reform programme – insofar as it affects and involves paratransit – which may impact upon future phases of the reform programme. These emerging issues include: the feasibility of continued financial compensation for withdrawing existing operating permissions in view of broader fiscal concerns around BRT implementation; a lack of insight into the fundamental factors driving the responses of paratransit operators and associations to the reform programme; and concerns around a national public transport reform policy that may not be sufficiently grounded in the local contexts within which municipalities and operators function.

Feasibility of Converting Two-Way Left-Turn Lane into Bus Rapid Transit Lane

Although past research and experience have demonstrated the benefits of bus rapid transit (BRT) to the transportation system, implementation of BRT on congested local arterials having minimal or no rights-of-way remains a challenge. A feasible solution is to use the two-way left-turn lane (TWLTL) in the center of local streets for the purpose of BRT during peak hours. However, a TWLTL can be used in two ways for this purpose: directly as a median BRT lane and as a reversible general traffic lane (so that the curb lane is reserved for BRT). Without a clear understanding of the impacts of traffic characteristics, intersection layouts, and traffic signal control types on each of the alternatives, transit agencies usually have difficulty in determining the option that best serves transit vehicles and simultaneously minimizes impacts to the general traffic. This study evaluates the performance of a median BRT lane and a curb BRT lane and considers varying traffic conditions and physical configurations of the street and the intersections. The pros and cons of each alternative are also specified, in accordance with the simulation analysis.