Temperature Water Immersion Research Articles

Thermal effects of water immersion on spray cooling in non-boiling zone

Spray cooling shows significant advantages in thermal control of high heat flux components. However, rapid drainage problem with the spray chamber can affect the reliability and stability of the cooling system. It can be solved by means of immersion. The focus of this paper is to conduct a comparative study of the heat transfer performance between spray cooling (SC) and immersed spray cooling (ISC). It is proved that with reasonable control of immersion state and spray pressure, the immersion does not worsen the heat transfer, but even helps to enhance it with a maximum enhancement ratio of 12.2%. The immersion water temperature and spray pressure play a vital role in the ISC. Wide-angle nozzles are not suitable for ISC applications. The immersion deteriorates the spray cooling by up to 50.1% when the spray angle is 83°. This paper can be a guide to the structural design of the spray chamber.

Seed vigor testing of coffee [Coffea sp.] to gibberellin hormone [GA3] concentration and water temperature differences

West Sumatra is one producing coffee region in Indonesia that contributes to the economy in Indonesia because unstable need expand. Optimizing generative propagation of coffee plants with gibberellin hormone treatment and different water temperatures on coffee seed germination stage. The research was conducted at the Seed Technology Laboratory Faculty Agriculture, Andalas University from July to September 2020. Research methods used randomized block design [RBD] with 2 treatments namely concentration hormone gibberellin and immersion water temperature differences. Measurement parameters are maximum growth potential [%], First Count Test [FCT] [%], and Index Value Test [IVT] [days]. All parameter observation results showed a significant effect on the treatment of gibberellin hormone concentration and water temperature treatment. G4S1 sample [the combination of 200 ppm gibberellin hormone concentration and room water temperature treatments] has resulted as the best treatment for all parameters. Respectively, 0.79 days for index value test, 76.67% for the first count test, and 85% for the maximum growth potential parameters.

Performance study of constant temperature water immersion thawing system using refrigerator compressor casing heat

Five commonly used thawing methods include water immersion (WT), lotic water (LT), ambient temperature (AT), refrigerator (RT), and microwave (MT) thawing. WT, LT, and AT cannot maintain a specified constant temperature during thawing, whereas MT consumes substantial energy. On the basis of the shortcomings of the above methods, a constant temperature water immersion thawing system using fixed-frequency refrigerator compressor casing heat storage (CWT-CCTS) is designed. The CWT-CCTS recycles the waste heat of the compressor casing and uses the heat to thaw frozen food in constant temperature water. The new system not only provides a new heat source for thawing but also reduces the overall energy consumption and noise of the system during operation. Under a stable full-load operating condition of the refrigerator, CWT-CCTS can reduce the compressor casing and discharge temperatures by 3.8°C and 2.5°C, respectively. The water loss rate of CWT-CCTS is only 15.9% of MT, demonstrating a decrease of 84.1%. In terms of thawing, the maximum power consumption saved by the device is 516.79 kW·h per year in comparison with MT, and the cost of the device can be recovered after 178 days of use

Study on the Crack and Thermal Degradation of GFRP for UPE Gelcoat Coated Underground Pipes Under the High Temperature Water-Immersion Environment

Study on the Crack and Thermal Degradation of GFRP for UPE Gelcoat Coated Underground Pipes Under the High Temperature Water-Immersion Environment

Differential effects of post-exercise ice water immersion and room temperature water immersion on muscular performance, vertical jump, and agility in amateur rugby players: A randomized controlled trial

Summary Objective This study compared the effects of post-exercise water immersion at different temperatures on the muscular and functional performance in rugby players. Methods Fifty-three participants (21.6 ± 2.9 years) were randomly assigned to an ice water immersion (IWI; 5C) group, a room temperature water immersion (RWI; 25C) group, or a no-immersion group. After a bout of fatiguing exercise, the participants underwent an immersion intervention. The outcomes were measured at baseline and post-intervention. The isokinetic peak torque and time to peak torque during knee extension and flexion at 60°/s were recorded, along with countermovement jump height and the time taken to complete a hexagon agility test. Results There were significant group-by-time interaction effect (P

Can Temperate-Water Immersion Effectively Reduce Rectal Temperature in Exertional Heat Stroke? A Critically Appraised Topic.

Are Trec cooling rates acceptable (≥0.08°C/min) when significantly hyperthermic humans are immersed in temperate water? Trec cooling rates of hyperthermic humans immersed in temperate water (≥20°C [68°F]) ranged from 0.06°C/min to 0.19°C/min. The average Trec cooling rate for all examined studies was 0.11±0.06°C/min. Clinical Bottom Line: Temperature water immersion (TWI) provides acceptable (ie, >0.08°C/min) Trec cooling rates for hyperthermic humans post-exercise. However, CWI cooling rates are higher and should be used if feasible (eg, access to ice, shaded treatment areas). Strength of Recommendation: The majority of evidence (eg, Level 2 studies with PEDro scores ≥5) suggests TWI provides acceptable, though not ideal, Trec cooling. If possible, CWI should be used instead of TWI in EHS scenarios.

Pendant dual sulfonated poly(arylene ether ketone) proton exchange membranes for fuel cell application

Abstract Poly(arylene ether ketone) (PAEK) possessing carboxylic groups at the pendant position is synthesized, and the substitution degree of pendant carboxylic groups is controlled by adjusting the ratio of 4,4-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)valeric acid and 2,2-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)propane. Dual sulfonated 3,3-diphenylpropylamine (SDPA) is grafted onto PAEK as a proton-conducting moiety via the amidation reaction with carboxylic groups. The transparent and flexible membranes with different degrees of sulfonation are fabricated so that we can test and compare their structure and properties with a commercial Nafion ® 115 membrane for PEMFC applications. All prepared PAEK-SDPA membranes exhibit good oxidative and hydrolytic stability from Fenton's and high temperature water immersion test. SAXS analysis illustrates an excellent phase separation between the hydrophobic backbone and hydrophilic pendant groups, resulting in big ionic clusters. The proton conductivity was measured at different relative humidity, and its behavior was analyzed by hydration number of the membrane. Among a series of membranes, some samples (including B20V80-SDPA) show not only higher proton conductivity, but also higher integrated cell performance than those of Nafion ® 115 at 100% relative humidity, and thus we expect these to be good candidate membranes for proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs).

Optimizing Cold-Water Immersion for Exercise-Induced Hyperthermia: An Evidence-Based Paper.

Reference: Zhang Y, Davis JK, Casa DJ, Bishop PA. Optimizing cold water immersion for exercise-induced hyperthermia: a meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2015;47(11):2464-2472. Clinical Questions: Do optimal procedures exist for implementing cold-water immersion (CWI) that yields high cooling rates for hyperthermic individuals? One reviewer performed a literature search using PubMed and Web of Science. Search phrases were cold water immersion, forearm immersion, ice bath, ice water immersion, immersion, AND cooling. Studies were included based on the following criteria: (1) English language, (2) full-length articles published in peer-reviewed journals, (3) healthy adults subjected to exercise-induced hyperthermia, and (4) reporting of core temperature as 1 outcome measure. A total of 19 studies were analyzed. Pre-immersion core temperature, immersion water temperature, ambient temperature, immersion duration, and immersion level were coded a priori for extraction. Data originally reported in graphical form were digitally converted to numeric values. Mean differences comparing the cooling rates of CWI with passive recovery, standard deviation of change from baseline core temperature, and within-subjects r were extracted. Two independent reviewers used the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale to assess the risk of bias. Cold-water immersion increased the cooling rate by 0.03°C/min (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.03, 0.04°C/min) compared with passive recovery. Cooling rates were more effective when the pre-immersion core temperature was ≥38.6°C (P = .023), immersion water temperature was ≤10°C (P = .036), ambient temperature was ≥20°C (P = .013), or immersion duration was ≤10 minutes (P < .001). Cooling rates for torso and limb immersion (mean difference = 0.04°C/min, 95% CI = 0.03, 0.06°C/min) were higher (P = .028) than those for forearm and hand immersion (mean difference = 0.01°C/min, 95% CI = -0.01, 0.04°C/min). Hyperthermic individuals were cooled twice as fast by CWI as by passive recovery. Therefore, the former method is the preferred choice when treating patients with exertional heat stroke. Water temperature should be <10°C, with the torso and limbs immersed. Insufficient published evidence supports CWI of the forearms and hands.

Optimizing Cold Water Immersion for Exercise-Induced Hyperthermia

Cold water immersion (CWI) provides rapid cooling in events of exertional heat stroke. Optimal procedures for CWI in the field are not well established. This meta-analysis aimed to provide structured analysis of the effectiveness of CWI on the cooling rate in healthy adults subjected to exercise-induced hyperthermia. An electronic search (December 2014) was conducted using the PubMed and Web of Science. The mean difference of the cooling rate between CWI and passive recovery was calculated. Pooled analyses were based on a random-effects model. Sources of heterogeneity were identified through a mixed-effects model Q statistic. Inferential statistics aggregated the CWI cooling rate for extrapolation. Nineteen studies qualified for inclusion. Results demonstrate CWI elicited a significant effect: mean difference, 0.03°C·min(-1); 95% confidence interval, 0.03-0.04°C·min(-1). A conservative, observed estimate of the CWI cooling rate was 0.08°C·min(-1) across various conditions. CWI cooled individuals twice as fast as passive recovery. Subgroup analyses revealed that cooling was more effective (Q test P < 0.10) when preimmersion core temperature ≥38.6°C, immersion water temperature ≤10°C, ambient temperature ≥20°C, immersion duration ≤10 min, and using torso plus limbs immersion. There is insufficient evidence of effect using forearms/hands CWI for rapid cooling: mean difference, 0.01°C·min(-1); 95% confidence interval, -0.01°C·min(-1) to 0.04°C·min(-1). A combined data summary, pertaining to 607 subjects from 29 relevant studies, was presented for referencing the weighted cooling rate and recovery time, aiming for practitioners to better plan emergency procedures. An optimal procedure for yielding high cooling rates is proposed. Using prompt vigorous CWI should be encouraged for treating exercise-induced hyperthermia whenever possible, using cold water temperature (approximately 10°C) and maximizing body surface contact (whole-body immersion).

Optimizing Cold Water Immersion For Exercise-Induced Hyperthermia

PURPOSE: Overwhelming evidence indicates cold water immersion (CWI) provides superior cooling rates for hyperthermic individuals. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of CWI on the cooling rate in healthy adults subject to exercise-induced hyperthermia. METHODS: Eleven studies qualified for inclusion. Included in the meta-analysis were standardized mean difference (SMD; Hedges’ g) including 95% confidence intervals (CI), parallel with mean ± SD of cooling rates for CWI from each study/data set. Using a random-effects model, heterogeneity was established computing the I2 statistic. RESULTS: Thirteen cooling rates pertaining to 159 subjects show a significant overall SMD = 2.48 (95% CI: 1.57-3.39, P < 0.0001). CWI elicited 2.3-fold greater cooling rate than passive rest (CON): CWI 0.14 ± 0.07°C·min-1 vs. CON 0.06 ± 0.04°C·min-1. Meta-regression showed immersion time was not correlated to cooling rate (Cochran’s Q = 2.98, P = 0.08). Subgroup analyses revealed that immersion water temperature was a strong moderator of cooling rate, with the fastest cooling rate using <5°C (SMD = 8.29, P < 0.0001) and 5-10°C CWI (SMD = 2.18, P = 0.028). Using the mean cooling rate from this meta-analysis, it is projected that it requires ∼7, 10, 14, 23 min to cool a hyperthermic individual from 40.0°C to 38.6°C, for <5°C, 5-10°C, 10-15°C CWI, and CON, respectively. CONCLUSION: CWI should be encouraged for treating exercise-induced hyperthermia whenever possible, using as cold a water temperature as possible.

Determination of nucleotides, nucleosides and their transformation products in Cordyceps by ion-pairing reversed-phase liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry

An ion-pairing reversed-phase liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (IP-RP-LC–MS) was developed for the determination of nucleotides, nucleosides and their transformation products in Cordyceps. Perfluorinated carboxylic acid, namely pentadecafluorooctanoic acid (PDFOA, 0.25 mM), was used as volatile ion-paring agent and a reversed-phase column (Agilent ZORBAX SB-Aq column) was used for the separation of three nucleotides namely uridine-5′-monophosphate (UMP, 0.638–10.200 μg/mL), adenosine-5′-monophosphate (AMP, 0.24–7.80 μg/mL) and guanosine-5′-monophosphate (GMP, 0.42–13.50 μg/mL), seven nucleosides including adenosine (0.55–8.85 μg/mL), guanosine (0.42–6.75 μg/mL), uridine (0.33–10.50 μg/mL), inosine (0.21–6.60 μg/mL), cytidine (0.48–15.30 μg/mL), thymidine (0.20–6.30 μg/mL) and cordycepin (0.09–1.50 μg/mL), as well as six nucleobases, adenine (0.22–6.90 μg/mL), guanine (0.26–4.20 μg/mL), uracil (0.38–12.15 μg/mL), hypoxanthine (0.13–4.20 μg/mL), cytosine (0.39–12.45 μg/mL) and thymine (0.26–8.25 μg/mL) with 5-chlorocytosine arabinoside as the internal standard. The overall LODs and LOQs were between 0.01–0.16 μg/mL and 0.04–0.41 μg/mL for the 16 analytes, respectively. The contents of 16 investigated compounds in natural and cultured Cordyceps were also determined and compared after validation of the developed IP-RP-LC-MS method. The transformations of nucleotides and nucleosides in Cordyceps were evaluated based on the quantification of the investigated compounds in three extracts, including boiling water extraction (BWE), 24 h ambient temperature water immersion (ATWE) and 56 h ATWE extracts. Two transformation pathways including UMP → uridine → uracil and GMP → guanosine → guanine were proposed in both natural Cordyceps sinensis and cultured Cordyceps militaris. The pathway of AMP → adenosine → inosine → hypoxanthine was proposed in natural C. sinensis, while AMP → adenosine → adenine in cultured C. militaris. However, the transformation of nucleotides and nucleosides was not found in commercial cultured C. sinensis.

Post exercise ice water immersion: Is it a form of active recovery?

Ice water immersion and contrast temperature water immersion therapy post exercise is fast becoming a common practice among athletes involved in a variety of sports. Several mechanisms have been put forth to explain the rationale for its use. However, there is still a lack of evidence from a sufficiently large-scale trial to support the routine practice and formal incorporation into certain sporting guidelines. We describe here two athletes who applied the therapy post exercise and presented to the Emergency Department with delayed onset muscle pain.

A control strategy to assure safety conditions in the thermal treatment of meat products using a numerical algorithms

A finite element computational code was programmed in Matlab language to establish time–temperature specifications, in order to assure thermal inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in black sausages, produced in small scale plants. Even though the heating system in these plants may have a temperature control operating on the gas burners, the immersion water temperature can decrease significantly if the load ratio (sausage/water mass) increases; the thermal inertia of the system makes it difficult to re-establish this temperature instantaneously. The effect of the ratio between the amount of thermally treated sausages and the heat capacity of the system, on the temperature drop in the water bath, was mathematically simulated and experimentally validated. Computer simulations were performed by coupling the numerical solution of the microscopic heat conduction equation in the product with the macroscopic heat balance, which considers the heat flux of the gas burners. The model satisfactorily predicted experimental time–temperature results (mean error less than 5%) and constitutes a useful tool for meat processors and plant operators since it allows to determine adequate time–temperature conditions as a function of load ratio and initial water temperature, combining the microbial lethality kinetics with the main program.

Moisture Induced Accelerated Aging of an Amorphous Silicon TFT-Photodiode Array

Large area electronic devices based on amorphous silicon thin film technology are finding increased use in applications including information displays, x-ray detectors, antenna arrays, surveillance radar, and sensors for chem-bio hazard detection. 1 Fabricated on a variety of substrate materials, these devices generally consist of multilayered structures of conducting, semi-conducting, and insulating films. High density fine-lined interconnect technology is frequently employed to achieve the desired electrical connection between various circuit elements. In practice, the majority of these devices are assembled into non-hermetic or quasi-hermetic second level package enclosures for eventual field use. Accordingly, the thin film structures will be subjected to prolonged exposure to environmental or ambient moisture. This situation is further complicated since, in many cases, the levels of ambient moisture will exhibit significant fluctuation due to the relatively uncontrolled environment the devices are ultimately deployed within. It is therefore essential that one understand the potential performance degradation of the device due to extended exposure to ambient moisture. This paper describes the accelerated moisture induced aging of a glass substrate based large area amorphous silicon based TFT-photodiode active matrix. A high temperature water immersion technique is utilized to enhance the moisture penetration rate through the final layer of protective device passivation. The ability of this test methodology to rapidly characterize the reliability performance of a passivation layer is presented. The moisture induced stress sensitivity of device parametrics, FET and photo-diode leakage, interconnect degradation, and metallic corrosion as a function of prolonged high temperature water exposure is discussed.

Using Recovery Modalities between Training Sessions in Elite Athletes

Achieving an appropriate balance between training and competition stresses and recovery is important in maximising the performance of athletes. A wide range of recovery modalities are now used as integral parts of the training programmes of elite athletes to help attain this balance. This review examined the evidence available as to the efficacy of these recovery modalities in enhancing between-training session recovery in elite athletes. Recovery modalities have largely been investigated with regard to their ability to enhance the rate of blood lactate removal following high-intensity exercise or to reduce the severity and duration of exercise-induced muscle injury and delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Neither of these reflects the circumstances of between-training session recovery in elite athletes. After high-intensity exercise, rest alone will return blood lactate to baseline levels well within the normal time period between the training sessions of athletes. The majority of studies examining exercise-induced muscle injury and DOMS have used untrained subjects undertaking large amounts of unfamiliar eccentric exercise. This model is unlikely to closely reflect the circumstances of elite athletes. Even without considering the above limitations, there is no substantial scientific evidence to support the use of the recovery modalities reviewed to enhance the between-training session recovery of elite athletes. Modalities reviewed were massage, active recovery, cryotherapy, contrast temperature water immersion therapy, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, compression garments, stretching, electromyostimulation and combination modalities. Experimental models designed to reflect the circumstances of elite athletes are needed to further investigate the efficacy of various recovery modalities for elite athletes. Other potentially important factors associated with recovery, such as the rate of post-exercise glycogen synthesis and the role of inflammation in the recovery and adaptation process, also need to be considered in this future assessment.

Effects of immersion water temperature on whole-body fluid distribution in humans.

In this study, we quantified acute changes in the intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments during upright neutral- and cold-water immersion. We hypothesized that, during short-term cold immersion, fluid shifts would be wholly restricted to the extracellular space. Seven males were immersed 30 days apart: control (33.3 degrees SD 0.6 degrees C); and cold (18.1 degrees SD 0.3 degrees C). Posture was controlled for 4 h prior to a 60-min seated immersion. Significant reductions in terminal oesophageal (36.9 degrees +/- 0.1 degrees -36.3 degrees +/- 0.1 degrees C) and mean skin temperatures (30.3 degrees +/- 0.3 degrees -23.0 degrees +/- 0.3 degrees C) were observed during the cold, but not the control immersion. Both immersions elicited a reduction in intracellular fluid [20.17 +/- 6.02 mL kg(-1) (control) vs. 22.72 +/- 9.90 mL kg(-1)], while total body water (TBW) remained stable. However, significant plasma volume (PV) divergence was apparent between the trials at 60 min [12.5 +/- 1.0% (control) vs. 6.1 +/- 3.1%; P < 0.05], along with a significant haemodilution in the control state (P < 0.05). Plasma atrial natriuretic peptide concentration increased from 18.0 +/- 1.6 to 58.7 +/- 15.1 ng L(-1) (P < 0.05) during cold immersion, consistent with its role in PV regulation. We observed that, regardless of the direction of the PV change, both upright immersions elicited reductions in intracellular fluid. These observations have two implications. First, one cannot assume that PV changes reflect those of the entire extracellular compartment. Second, since immersion also increases interstitial fluid pressure, fluid leaving the interstitium must have been rapidly replaced by intracellular water.

Effect of recovery modality on 4-hour repeated treadmill running performance and changes in physiological variables

The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of three different recovery modalities--active (ACT), passive (PAS) and contrast temperature water immersion (CTW)--on the performance of repeated treadmill running, lactate concentration and pH. Fourteen males performed two pairs of treadmill runs to exhaustion at 120% and 90% of peak running speed (PRS) over a 4-hour period. ACT, PAS or CTW was performed for 15-min after the first pair of treadmill runs. ACT consisted of running at 40% PRS, PAS consisted of standing stationary and CTW consisted of alternating between 60-s cold (10 degrees C) and 120-s hot (42 degrees C) water immersion. Run times were converted to time to cover set distance using critical power. Type of recovery modality did not have a significant effect on change in time to cover 400 m (Mean +/- SD; ACT 2.7 +/- 3.6 s, PAS 2.9 +/- 4.2 s, CTW 4.2 +/- 6.9 s), 1000 m (ACT 2.2 +/- 4.0 s, PAS 4.8 +/- 8.6 s, CTW 2.1 +/- 7.2 s) or 5000 m (ACT 1.4 +/- 29.0 s, PAS 16.7 +/- 58.5 s, CTW 11.7 +/- 33.0 s). Post exercise blood lactate concentration was lower in ACT and CTW compared with PAS. Participants reported an increased perception of recovery in the CTW compared with ACT and PAS. Blood pH was not significantly influenced by recovery modality. Data suggest both ACT and CTW reduce lactate accumulation after high intensity running, but high intensity treadmill running performance is returned to baseline 4-hours after the initial exercise bout regardless of the recovery strategy employed.

Correlation between High Temperature-High Pressure Water Corrosion Behaviors and Microstructural Changes and Residual Strength Characteristics of ZrO2-Particle-Dispersed Al2O3.

High temperature and high pressure water corrosion behaviors of ZrO2-particle-dispersed Al2O3 composites were investigated in terms of with the microstructural changes and residual strength characteristics. Sintered Al2O3 bodies with 5, 15, and 30 wt.% 3 mol% Y2O3-doped tetragonal ZrO2 were made using a pressureless sintering method at 1 550. 1 600 and 1 650°C, respectively. These Al2O3/ZrO2 ceramic composites were corroded in high temperature and high pressure deionized water at 200°C∼300°C. Corrosion damage of the Al2O3/ZrO2 ceramic composites occurred preferentially on ZrO2 particles after long-term immersion in deionized water. The tetragonal to monoclinic phase transformation occurred in yittria-doped tetragonal ZrO2 polycrystals due to high temperature and high pressure deionized water corrosion. For improvement of the corrosion characteristics of the composites, are important increasing the ZrO2 content within a range in which no remarkable residual strength degradation is recognized and lowering of the sintering temperature. Al2O3/ZrO2 ceramic composites also have superior residual strength characteristics compared to monolithic ZrO2 ceramics. The residual strength characteristics are improved by increasing the ZrO2 particle concentration. and loweringthe sintering temperature. The fracture surface morphology change from transgranular to intergranular was brought about by increasing the ZrO2 content. Improvement in residual strength characteristics of Al2O3/ZrO2 composites was realized. due to intergranular crack propagation, crack pinning caused by remarkable grain bridging by Al2O3 and stress-induced transformation from tetragonal ZrO2 to stable monoclinic in the vicinity of the crack tip. Then, the necessary manufacturing conditions for sustaining the improved strength characteristics after high pressure and high temperature water immersion were clarified. In addition design concepts used to obtain water-corrosion-resistant high strength and high toughness particle dispersed ceramic composites were proposed.