II-III Century Research Articles

THE EVOLUTION OF CHRISTIAN ICONOGRAPHY IN THE VI-VII CENTURIES

The II-III centuries represented the period of the birth of Christian sacred art through Christians imitating the custom of pagans, from whose ranks most of them came, to decorate their graves, sarcophagi or mausoleums with images and even by borrowing some pagan symbols and themes, to which they obviously gave a new, Christian meaning, to which, of course, exclusively Christian themes were added, most often of biblical origin, most of them having a narrative-historical character. In the 4th-5th centuries, under the careful supervision of the Church, a synthesis was made regarding the themes addressed, by abandoning some, by taking over others from the imperial imaginary, prevalence acquiring a dogmatic character, from the desire to express and through the mediation of figurative art, not only through the poetic, transposed into songs, the truths of faith formulated at the first four ecumenical synods, but also in terms of styles. In this second stage of the history of Christian sacred art, especially in the 5th century, as a result of the synthesis achieved in the capital of the empire between the two great artistic currents that manifested themselves in painting, the Hellenistic-Alexandrian and the SyroPalestinian, was formed the Constantinopolitan painting school and the stylistic features specific to this school crystallized . The present study aims to point out the main characteristics and developments of Christian sacred art in the Byzantine Empire starting from the time of Emperor Justinian I until the outbreak of Byzantine iconoclasm.

The right to freedom of expression and its limitations according to Albanian legislation

Abstract The right to freedom of expression, not without purpose provided for in the first amendment of the Constitution of the United States of America, is one of the main basic rights on which modern democratic states were founded. The enjoyment of this freedom is closely related to a series of other equally basic rights, such as freedom of belief, freedom of organization, the right not to be harassed for personal opinions, the freedom to be attached to a certain political party, etc (Salvatore, 2019). The right to freedom of expression is one of the oldest freedoms that arose as a result of freedom of religion, mentioned by the first Christian writers during the II-III century, and then during the conflicts between Catholics and Protestants in the centuries XVI-XVII. On the other hand, it was encouraged and elaborated by the great theorists of the freedom of scientific research (just think of Descartes and Galileo) and of political freedom (such as Milton). Later, the right of Freedom of Expression was elaborated by philosophers of the XVIII-XIX centuries such as Voltaire, Fichte, Benthan. In this sense, John Stuart Mill said that freedom of expression protects us from corrupt power, tyranny, and this freedom is one of the basic guarantees for an open and pluralistic society (Mihajllova, Bacovaska and Shekerxhiev, 2013). Since the circulation of ideas is a prerequisite for the communication of thought, the freedom of expression or manifestation of thought has always been considered by Italian constitutional jurisprudence as the cornerstone of the democratic system (Bin and Pitruzzella, 2012). Main objective of this manuscript is the analysis of the Albanian legislation and jurisprudence about the freedom of expression.

Royal tamga-signs of Bosporus II-III centuries as a result of the barbarization

Royal tamga-signs of Bosporus II-III centuries as a result of the barbarization

Origin and development of primitive "porcelain" (proto-porcelain) in China

The article discusses the features of the development of Chinese primitive porcelain (proto-porcelain). The purpose of the article is to reveal the periodization of the development of Chinese porcelain in the early stages of its history and the influence of proto-porcelain on the so-called "mature" porcelain of later periods. Primitive porcelain, which is the transitional stage from earthenware to real porcelain, dates back to the era between the Shang Dynasty and the Eastern Han Dynasty. The study was conducted using historical and comparative methods, as well as the method of formal stylistic analysis. It was important to determine the characteristics of primitive porcelain and to reveal its role in the development of the global art of folklore production. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the fact that it not only reveals the time frame for the production of primitive porcelain in China and determines its technological and chemical properties, but also points out the influence factors of primitive porcelain on the historical development of Chinese and world porcelain. It was revealed that the origin of primitive porcelain dates back to the 16th-11th centuries BC, its development took place in the XI-II centuries BC, and the end of the era of primitive porcelain refers to the II-III centuries BC. Primitive porcelain has evolved over nearly two millennia. Having reached its peak, the technology of its manufacture provided the technological basis for the creation of "mature" porcelain. The conclusion is made about the significant influence that primitive porcelain had on Chinese, and through it – on world porcelain, largely determining the formation of this significant phenomenon of material culture.

AN AUCISSA DERIVATIVE FIBULA IN THE MIDDLE ROMAN PERIOD CEMETERIES IN ALBANIA: MILITARIA OR CIVILIAN TRENDS?

This paper will take in consideration, a certain type of fibula a derivative of Aucissa. The Aucissa fibulae were very much in fashion during the I century BC-I century AD, but its variants continued to be in use in the forthcoming centuries, such as the typology in question, which represents the development of the Aucissa type in the II-III centuries AD. This type has a limited number and distribution in Albania, presenting very close affiliation with counterparts in the Balkans, found mostly in military contexts. Most likely it represents an eastern Roman production, which attests regional patterns in the II-III centuries AD. This typology can be correlated to the military sphere, as can be noticed from the associated material in the funerary contexts, demonstrating though for the militarization of the population or the presence of the roman units in the territory of Southern Illyria.

ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПОЯСА БАШЕН ХОРЫ ХЕРСОНЕСА: ФОРТИФИКАЦИЯ ИЛИ АНТИСЕЙСМИКА?

The article discusses the question of the appointment of additional belts, which were erected on the sites of Chersonesos Chora in the III-II centuries BC. In ordinary sense, these architectural elements served to strengthen the walls and towers, however, for today in Russian historiography there is no consensus about the reasons and purpose of such strengthening. Almost all of researchers, who have addressed this case, agree with on their “anti-ram” (ie fortification) or anti-seismic purpose. In connection with the significant accumulation of archaeological data both in Russia and abroad, it seems possible to consider this architectural phenomenon in a wider time and geographical framework, as well as to attach some facts that may indicate other reasons for the emergence these architectural elements. This research based on the consideration of analogies to the studied architectural objects - construction remains similar in design, recorded in the territory of the Eastern Crimea. Thus, the expanded geography and chronology of the architectural phenomenon allows one to obtain new theoretical generalizations.

«ВЕЛИКОМУ БОРЦУ СВОЙСТВЕННО ПРИНИМАТЬ УДАРЫ И ПОБЕЖДАТЬ»: МИЛИТАНТНОСТЬ В РАННЕХРИСТИАНСКОМ МУЧЕНИЧЕСТВЕ

The article reveals the militant, that is, positively correlated with active violence, images and concepts in the early Christian martyrdom: agon (struggle), war, and the army. Contrary to the widespread notion of a Christian martyr as a passive and speechless victim of persecution, the author shows that martyrs themselves, the authors of martyrological works, and theologians regarded martyrs as fighters or warriors who fight the devil and achieve victory in death. According to such an interpretation, martyrs were called “noble athletes/fighters”, as well as “athletes of Christ” or “soldiers of Christ”, and their feats were called “the great struggle”. The tradition of militant understanding of martyrdom takes shape in the II-III centuries CE and persists in the later tradition. Besides, in the IV-V centuries. it was actively exploited by some radical Christian movements that practiced real violence - in particular, Egyptian and Syrian monks, Parabalani, and the Circumcellions...

ІСТОРИЧНІ ВИТОКИ СТАНОВЛЕННЯ РАННЬОХРИСТИЯНСЬКОГО ФЕНОМЕНА ШАНУВАННЯ МУЧЕНИЦТВА

The Institute of Saints is a phenomenon in the history of the Christian Church. This article examines one of the main sources of veneration of Christian saints - the phenomenon of early Christian martyrdom. The author focuses on the early stages of the Christian Church's existence and aims to find the origins of the veneration of holiness in Christian martyrdom, which is a feature of the period of pre-Nicene Christianity. The article examines the main reason for the strained relations between the official authorities of the Roman Empire and the early Christian ecclesia, which led to the emergence of the phenomenon of martyrdom. The reasons for the veneration and sacralization of martyrs in the early Christian pre-Nicene period have been clarified. In order to prove the available examples of sacralization of Christian martyrdom in the pre-Nicene period of the Church's history, the author has previously studied the works of early Christian apologists of the II-III centuries AD - the basis of the early Christian tradition. Because of this, the author draws attention to the Jewish origins of the phenomenon of the sanctity of martyrdom. Accordingly, the article also focuses on the books of the Old Testament. The spiritual and ideological factor of Christian doctrine, which encouraged Christians to glorify martyrs as heroes, is also traced. Key and formative aspects of samples of early hagiography are revealed. According to these sources, an analysis of the places of death of early Christian martyrs and their burials that became fundamental elements to the foundation of the institution of honoring martyrdom is made. The evolution of the glorification of martyrs from the early existence of Christian ecclesia to the period of the conciliar Christian Church in alliance with the Roman state is traced. To this end, the sources of the Church Fathers of the IV-V centuries AD are considered. Based on the treatises of John Chrysostom, the author concludes that the veneration of the days of remembrance of the martyrs was canonically established in the late antique Christian Church. Evidences of the official sacralization of the martyrs is also given by elaborating the texts of the Local and Ecumenical Church Councils. Based on these sources, there are a lot of evidences of the Church's official veneration of martyrs in the initial period of the Church's legal existence in the Roman Empire. Given that the initial veneration of saints took place through the prism of the sacralization of early Christian martyrdom, this article is an integral part of the study of the field of hagiography and the institution of holiness within the history of the Church.

CANONICAL PRINCIPLES OF THE AUTOCEPHALOUS SYSTEM OF THE ECUMENICAL CHURCH SN THE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

The article analyzes the body of legal norms of church law, which regulates the autocephalous principle of the church. The vector of modern transformation of autocephalous issues determines the revision of traditional approaches and reflects the ecclesiological dimension of modern Orthodoxy. The article reveals the essence of the earthly rule of the "heavenly Church", which is subordinated to the church's mission in finding the way to salvation. It is proved that the internal church system is of practical importance for the process of autocephaly of the new national local churches, which gained independence in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The article examines that the church canons adopted and endorsed by the emperor in the Code of Justinian the Great in the era of the Ecumenical Councils, are relevant today. These rules, which are universally binding, may be repealed by the new All-Orthodox Council. This is important for a number of modern national churches that defend their canonical rights for independence and universal recognition. The study found that since the Byzantine Empire, state power has imposed its own principle of administrative division and management methods. Already in the II-III centuries a clear hierarchical structure of church management was formed, which led to the formation of ancient patriarchates. However, the founding of the first apostolic communities took place solely on the basis of the autocephalous principle.It is concluded that Orthodox ecclesiology offers an alternative approach to churchadministrative management. It is proved that only the autocephalous system is the only acceptable variant of the existence of the Universal Orthodoxy. Therefore, the struggle of a number of national churches for independence and recognition is fair. The lack of clear regulation of the procedure for proclamation of a new autocephalous church is specified. Therefore, further scientific explorations of autocephalous topics and the canonical work of the Holy Fathers will complement the research.

Tradizione e innovazione cultuale in età ellenistica: Arato e la realtà di Sicione

The polis of Sicyon is particularly interesting for our understanding of waves of changes from the IV Century B.C. onwards, into abeyance between heroic and divine cults. The timai for Euphron I and Demetrius Poliorketes are significant in this regard, but above all one must focus on the cult for Aratus, which was honoured as soter and new founder in his hometown, as described in detail in Plutarch’s biography. It represents the respect of cultic tradition comparing to the divine honours tributed to Antigonus Doson and to other protagonists of III-II Century B.C. in Sicyon and in the Peloponnese. Furthermore, it constitutes a good exemplum for Plutarch’s contemporaries and, above all, Polikrates (and his sons), to whom the Life of Aratus is dedicated.

ҚАДИМГИФАРҒОНА (ДОВОН) ПОДШОЛИГИ ТАРИХИГА ОИД АЙРИМ МУЛОҲАЗАЛАР

In article on the basis the article based on the analysis of written and archaeological materials expressed new views on the original territory and on the capital of the Davan kingdom. Also, a ceramic complex dating back to the III-II centuries BC is highlighted ancient Fergana

RICERCHE STORICO-ARCHEOLOGICHE DELL’UNIVERSITÀ CATTOLICA DI MILANO SUL DELTA DELL’INDO (2010-2018)

RICERCHE STORICO-ARCHEOLOGICHE DELL’UNIVERSITÀ CATTOLICA DI MILANO SUL DELTA DELL’INDO (2010-2018)

Examination of the Noble Truths in the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā and its relevance to Early Buddhism

The article is devoted to an insufficiently explored page of history of early Buddhist philosophy, namely, the formation of the Noble Truths doctrine in the work of Nāgārjuna, the famous Indian philosopher of the II-III centuries AD, who is considered the founder of the Mādhyamaka school of Mahāyāna philosophy. An important source of this branch is the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, or the “Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way”, compiled by Nāgārjuna. This book consists of 27 sections and is considered the basic text of the Mahāyāna, which had a great influence on further evolution of Buddhist philosophy in India, Tibet and East Asia. The article analyzes the 24th section “The Noble Truths Study”, which consists of 40 verses devoted to various issues on the conditions for learning the truth. The purpose of this article is to analyze the substantive issues of 24th section in the context of unfolding of early Buddhist philosophical discourse. Nāgārjuna’s views on the ways of achieving truth are compared with the interpretations of modern historians of Buddhist philosophy: D. Kalupahana, A. Tillakaratne, M. Siderits, S. Katsura and others. Given comparativistics allow us to understand more comprehensively Mahāyāna’s process of formation, as well as to provide a meaningful explanation of what the Śūnyatā is.

"МЕЖІ ЦЕРКВИ" ТА КАНОНІЧНА ТЕРИТОРІЯ В КОНТЕКСТІ АВТОКЕФАЛЬНОГО УСТРОЮ ВСЕЛЕНСЬКОГО ПРАВОСЛАВ'Я

The article analyzes the fundamental problem of the corpus of ecclesiastical law – the autocephalous principle of the existence of the church. The study found that since the time of the Byzantine Empire, state power imposed its own principle of administrative division and management methods. Already in the II-III centuries, a clear hierarchical structure of church government has been formed. It is specified that the foundation of the first apostolic communities took place exclusively on the basis of the autocephalous principle. It is determined that the institution of autocephaly has been through a difficult path of formation: from the basic state of existence to a church-political phenomenon. It has been proved that it is the autocephalous system that is the only acceptable version of the existence of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy. Therefore, the struggle of a number of national churches for its independence and recognition is fair. The absence of a clear regulation of the procedure for proclaiming a new autocephalous church is specified. It is established that the principle of having a "canonical territory" in each of the churches was constantly violated. This is due to the problem of "parallel jurisdictions". The problem has been arising after the Fourth Ecumenical Council, when parallel hierarchies has been formed on the same territory. Nowadays, the problem of "parallel jurisdictions" is particularly acute in Western Europe and the American continents. The article establishes that the institutional disputes of the Local Churches, related to the borders and the "canonical territory", can be resolved only in a conciliar way and with the participation of all Orthodox hierarchs. Existing approaches to solving the "temporary" problem of "parallel jurisdictions" have led to the incorporation of existing non-canonical entities into recognized churches. The study emphasizes that the borders of the "canonical territory" in the vast majority should coincide with state borders, given that the state is politically sufficient, strong and constitutionally capable of supporting the church. Therefore, the church needs to return to the initial moment of institutional formation, when church borders corresponded specifically to national borders rather than territorial ones.

Назорейский обряд на Енисее. Часть I

The material of the article is one of the mysterious images engraved on the planes of the Oshkolskaya Pisanitsa. Pisanitsa objects are located 270 km North of the city of Abakan in southern Siberia. Oshkol Pisanitsa was discovered by the expedition of Dr. Aspelin (1887). Here in the steppe landscapes along the rivers Ah-YUS and Khara-YUS was the state of the medieval Kyrgyz. The proposed monument from the materials of N. Rybakov, published for the first time, the Author interprets it as a visual reproduction of the rite-the nazorean oath. From ancient manuscripts or new Testament literature, we do not find any detailed description or iconographic evidence of the oath. Our information is too sparse and limited to fragmentary references to this rite in the religious history of antiquity. However, one of the important components in the appearance of the Yenisei characters is a twisted braid that hangs from under the tiara along the back of the head to the shoulders. This factor, without exception, is characteristic of all the characters of the Gentiles and has a convergence with the dress of the sect of the Nazarenes-Gnostics of the II-III centuries. Long hair, as an ethnographic accent, allows you to solve semantic problems more successfully. The image is part of a group of characters of clergymen in robes, which are a fact of multilayered syncretism-an alien sermon in the steppes of modern Khakassia in the Middle of the VIII century. Structural combinations of the rite state the influence of the early Christian religion of Palestine, layered on Manichaeism. Sectarian groups at one time advanced to the medieval Kyrgyz on the Yenisei.

Божа велич і провидіння в богослов’ї Іринея Ліонського

Artykuł omawia problem ontologicznego rozróżnienia między Boską trans­cendencją oraz immanencją w myśli teologicznej Ireneusza z Lyonu. Autor przed­stawia podstawowy aparat pojęciowy oraz terminologiczny stosowany przez Ire­neusza w jego antynomicznym podejściu do „pogodzenia” między apofatycznym i katafatycznym obrazem Boga. Analizuje on właściwości kluczowe tych dwóch wymiarów natury Boga. Szczególna uwaga została poświęcona analizie katafa­tycznego podejścia do odpowiedzi na pytanie: w jaki sposób Bóg, całkowicie oddalony w aspekcie ontologicznym od rzeczywistości stworzonej, może jedno­cześnie być aktywnie obecny w świecie i napełniać go? W tym kontekście autor analizuje pojęcia kluczowe, które wyrażają „wewnątrzboskie” oddalenie oraz ak­tywną bliskość Boga w odniesieniu do bytu stworzonego.

Two pieces of linen with a latin inscription from the Biblical and Oriental Museum of Leon

The present article is a study of two linen fabrics that have an inscription in cursive Latin of very high interest. Both tissues are preserved in the Biblical and Oriental Museum of Leon and have an uncertain origin. The two pieces, which are decontextualized, have the same measure, 17 cm wide and 34 cm high. The text is Christian but has certain gaps. It is a repeated invocation to Jesus, who presents Him as the Beginning and the End of all, and qualifies Him repeatedly as Holy. These attributes are proper to God (Apocalypse 1,4; 1,8; 4,8), and being assigned to Jesus, seem to deny the human nature of Christ, which makes us think of a text of heretical character with a clear relationship with Monarchianism or Sabellianism (II-III centuries AD). Sabellianism spread through Libya and Egypt from the third century onwards, which can approximate the text dating between the third and fifth centuries. A technical analysis of both the linen and the ink in which papyrus remains have been found entangled, was performed, indicating that it comes from a workshop in which linen or papyrus was made indistinctly, something that was common in the workshops of Egyptian craftsmen. A textual analysis was also performed enhancing the links with some passages of Apocalypse.

Mineralogy and chemical compositions of ancient slags from Volubilis archaeological site and Awam ancient mine (Morocco)

ABSTRACTSix slags from Volubilis archaeological site roman period (II-III centuries AC) and Jabal Awam ancient mine have been examined for their mineral and chemical compositions by a multi-technique approach (Optical and metallographical microscopies, XRD, ICP-AES and XRF). Mineralogical analyses have emphasised the occurrence of iron oxi-hydroxide, quartz, pyroxene and calcite). The bulk chemical compositions of slags are similar and related to a refining of a homogeneous ore. The very low contents of metals plead for well mastered pyrometallurgical methods. The metal composition of the treated ore is close to a polymetallic ore deposit probably similar to that of Awam mine (Lead and Silver).

A cuento del centenario del texto griego de la Poliglota complutense

The non-negligible volume of research subsequent to Delitzsch (1886) has removed long-standing prejudices and granted the CPB its true value not only as editio princeps of the Septuagint and the New Testament, but also as textual witness. It is no longer believed that the Complutensian publishers adapted the Greek text to the Vulgata’s or the Latin to the Hebraica veritas , or that they resorted to Ruckubersetzungen (‘back-translations’) from Latin into Greek for those passages that did no exist in the latter language (the so-called Spanish Greek). The ‘solitary’ readings of the CPB have considerably diminished once discovered that they featured, for instance, in the III century Washingtonian papyrus or in Ezekiel’s papyrus (II-III centuries), imposing the conclusion that Alcala’s humanists used manuscripts unknown to us and attesting to the CPB’s merits as textual witness.

Petro-archaeometric characterization of potteries from a kiln in Adrano, Sicily

AbstractBackgroundThis work is part of a wide scientific project finalized to characterize the Sicilian pottery productions from Greek to Roman Age. In this prospective, local reference groups have been analysed in order to create a database of the circulation and production centres in Sicily during this period. In this framework, a set of 28 waste pottery fragments (III-II century B.C.) from a pit found during excavations at the fortification of Adrano (Sicily) have been studied.Characterization of the samples has been obtained by macroscopic, petrographic (OM), mineralogical (XRD) and chemical (XRF) analyses.ResultsMacroscopic analysis of the studied potteries has allowed to distinguish four groups on the basis of grain size, porosity and clay paste color. Petrographic and mineralogical analysis, carried out on a selection of representative samples have allowed us to obtain useful information on the production technology of the studied samples. Moreover, information about raw materials and provenance of clay sediments has been obtained by comparing chemical data of the analysed samples with locally outcropping clay sediments reference data. Finally, chemical results on Adrano potteries have been compared with kiln wastes from Siracusa and Gela.ConclusionsThe aim of the present work is to obtain fabric characterizations and technological information on a local reference group of ceramic specimens manufactured in Adrano (Sicily). Petrographic and mineralogical results allow us to esteem high firing temperature suggesting a good technological level of local production; in addition, chemical data suggest a local provenance of raw materials used in the production of the studied samples. The comparison with local production from Siracusa and Gela highlights several differences in the use of raw material and in the technological levels achieved in the different sites, over time. Therefore, this work provides a valuable contribution in defining the local scenario of ceramic production in South-Eastern Sicily during the Hellenistic Age and in producing local reference groups in the petro-archaeometric studies of archaeological potteries.