Identity Status Paradigm Research Articles

The interplay of multicultural and career identity development

Career identity development, involving exploration and commitment, is a lifelong process by an individual that is fundamental to shaping one’s career. Although prior research has investigated what may lead one to develop a strong and clear career identity, there is limited understanding of the cultural influences on career identity development relevant to multicultural individuals. Integrating the identity status paradigm with a narrative identity perspective, we propose that career identity development interplays with multicultural identity development. We explore this interplay through in-depth interviews with Chinese-ethnic multicultural individuals. From the interviews, we elucidate a typology (Multicultural-Career Identity Interplay, ‘MCII’) to explain how multicultural identity and career identity development are interrelated in systematic ways (Commanding, Cruising, and Contending), and introduce a dual-dimensional, relational-oriented framework of career paths. We explain how each MCII pattern corresponds to individual career paths and is associated with immigration age. Our study extends career identity development theory into the cultural identity domain, providing a more nuanced understanding of the dynamic and culturally influenced career development of multicultural individuals. The findings can help individuals and career counsellors better understand and support the career identity development of individuals who identify with more than one culture.

Identity exploration of university students in the somatic and material domains: the mediating role of conspicuous consumption

PurposeThis paper is determined to examine the role of body image and materialism in predicting the identity exploration of university students when conspicuous consumption is a mediator variable.Design/methodology/approachThe study used a quantitative method. Data were collected from students of three federal universities in Nigeria. The sample size was 331. A self-report questionnaire was used to collect data and analysis was performed using the partial least squares structural equation modelling.FindingsFindings reveal that materialism has a negative association in predicting the identity exploration of students. At the same time, there was a significant full and partial mediating effect of conspicuous consumption on the relationship between body image and materialism on identity exploration, respectively.Research limitations/implicationsThe study provides valuable information for parents in understanding how conspicuous consumption may influence their children’s identity formation. The findings can also be helpful for educators in the design of discussions and interventions for students on the social-psychological antecedents of conspicuous consumption and identity exploration. Government and regulatory agencies can use the study’s findings to shape student financial literacy and consumer protection policies.Originality/valueThis study makes both theoretical and methodological contributions to the existing literature. It provided concrete empirical evidence establishing a subtle connection between the symbolic self-completion theory and the identity status paradigm. It is also amongst the first single research conducted within the scope of these two theories in the Nigerian higher education context.

Career Identity Statuses Derived From the Career Identity Development Inventory: A Person-Centered Approach.

The Career Identity Development Inventory (CIDI) was designed to be used at the person level to assign individuals in a career identity status that would indicate how they approached a career identity crisis and identify developmental needs to resolve career identity concerns. However, given that CIDI has not been tested using a person-centered approach, the first aim of this study was to demonstrate whether and how CIDI can be used to determine individuals' career identity statuses that are theoretically informed by Marcia's identity status paradigm and neo-Eriksonian identity literature. Using a sample of 410 US college graduates, we identified, through a cluster analytic approach, eight groups of distinct career identity profiles, from which four groups resembled Marcia's identity statuses and four other groups were unique variants of identity statuses that extended this paradigm and illustrated a more gradual process of career identity development. This person-centered approach enabled us to subsequently provide evidence of the criterion validity of CIDI, which was the second aim of this study. We examined how the eight career identity statuses derived from the cluster analysis differed according to validation-criterion variables and found that individuals assigned to statuses characterized by high levels of career identity commitments tended to have better career and psychosocial functioning than individuals assigned to statuses characterized by low levels of career identity commitments. Implications along with directions for future research are discussed with respect to developmental challenges associated with career exploration and critical processes of forming a constructed career identity.

Personal Values as Predictors of Identity Formation among Nigerian University Students

University environments provide atmospheres where young adults can explore Identity alternatives, make Identity commitments, and internalize various values required for adult life before graduation. Previous studies have demonstrated the relationship between values and Identity using Identity process theory. The current study explores this relationship using the Identity status paradigm. Particularly it examines the effects of self-direction, ideal body internalization, and materialistic value orientation on Identity exploration and commitment in a sample of 52 University students. This however is a preliminary exploration of values and identity issues within a broader study. The study utilized a cross-sectional design. Data shows that majority of the participants (84.9%) fall into the low exploration category, while less than half (44.2%) fall into the low commitment category. Also, no differences were found in students identity statuses based on their gender and age groups. Two separate Logistic regression analyses were performed. Result of the commitment model shows that Materialistic value orientation is a significant predictor of low Identity commitment and an increase in Self-direction reduces the probability of low Identity commitment, while the Identity exploration model shows an ascending predicted probability of values and low Identity exploration.

A Two-wave Longitudinal Study of Identity Profiles Based on Eight Dimensions: Further Insight into Exploration and Commitment Quality as Well as Life Domains Central to Identity

ABSTRACT It has been suggested that dual-cycle models of identity formation do not fit well with Erikson’s identity theory and the identity status paradigm due to 1) contradictory statuses, 2) problems with discerning past exploration and 3) ambiguity or limitations of the life domains covered. The present study extended the Dimensions for Identity Development Scale (DIDS) with three additional dimensions suggested previously, examined identity profiles and their transitions over time, their links with psychological well-being and what life domain was associated with “future plans” (N=1294; T1: age=17, 60% female; T2: age=18, 65% female). The results showed that 1) the eight-dimensional model fit the data well longitudinally; 2) six previously reported profiles emerged at both time points with expected links to psychological well-being; 3) as previously speculated, individuals in the (early) closure status had undertaken identity exploration in the past; 4) the previously encountered high commitment-high exploration status (i.e., searching moratorium) seems to be “superficially committed”; and 5) future plans are commonly associated with work life/occupation. Future research would benefit from employing qualitative research to better understand the subjective meanings attached to high commitment-high exploration and by developing new ways to account for quality and different levels of commitment.

Applying the Identity Status Paradigm to Managers’ Moral Identity

We investigated the applicability of the identity status paradigm in identifying different stages of moral identity maturity among managers, focusing on how they solve moral conflicts in the context of work. Researchers conducted two theory-driven studies. Study 1 was based on focus group discussions among 16 managers, while Study 2 was based on open-ended questionnaire items from 180 managers. Both studies supported the hypothesized identity statuses. The status named diffusion included a lack of commitment to moral values and associated with avoiding moral questions at work. In foreclosure, extrinsic (e.g., organizational) values were adopted and applied to personal decision-making. Managers in moratorium showed an active exploration of personal values, while those with achieved moral identity showed a commitment to self-chosen moral values. Study 1 showed that the participants applied different ethical principles when describing how they solved moral conflicts. Foreclosed managers tended to use utilitarianism, that is, to prioritize the benefits to their organization, when making ethical decisions. Managers in moratorium used ethics of care more often than others, and achieved managers relied on virtue ethics more than managers with other statuses. Our study makes a significant contribution to our understanding of the variation in moral identity maturity in adulthood. Understanding how value exploration and commitment relate to moral identity in the work domain can support more mature forms of moral identity among managers.

Contemporary views on personal identity formation

Identity development is undoubtedly one of the most crucial tasks in human life. Identity is also one of the most frequently examined issues in contemporary developmental psychology research. In the literature, we can find various definitions of identity, as well as various theoretical conceptualizations and models. The present paper describes contemporary models of personal identity, provides the definitions of the notions (as processes/dimensions/styles/modes) included in these models, measurement methods, as well as a review of the research results obtained in these various theoretical paradigms. The review includes multiple approaches – from Marcia’s classical identity status paradigm, through neo-Eriksonian models (such as the three and five dimensional models, identity styles, identity processes in adulthood) up to narrative views. Finally, we present conclusions based on the analyses of these models and implications for future research and theory.

What Does It Mean to Engage in Identity Exploration and to Hold Identity Commitments? A Methodological Critique of Multidimensional Measures for the Study of Identity Processes

In this article, the processes of identity exploration and commitment are considered in terms of theoretical conceptualizations and the operational definitions used in research. The perspectives of Erikson, Marcia, Luyckx, and Meeus are reviewed with respect to the multiple dimensions of these processes. Attention is focused on four exploration dimensions: (a) exploration in breadth, (b) exploration in depth, (c) reconsideration of commitment, and (d) ruminative exploration, and three dimensions of identity commitment: (a) presence versus absence of commitment, (b) extent of commitment-related activity, and (c) commitment quality. Identity status interviewing, as a methodology for the study of the identity status paradigm, and a variety of multidimensional questionnaires for research on identity, are compared for points of correspondence and divergence. A methodological critique of the Ego Identity Process Questionnaire, the Dimensions of Identity Development Scale, and the Utrecht-Management of Identity Commitments Scale raises concerns that the reported convergence of questionnaire assessments with the identity status paradigm is problematic. Weaknesses in existing questionnaire instruments are identified and a series of proposals for improving measurement are presented.

A cross-cultural investigation of identity statuses in Middle Eastern countries

The psychosocial theory of Erikson suggests that identity formation requires resolving a series of conflicts, and therefore ego strengths are related to the success or failure of resolving each conflict. Based on this theory, Marcia (1966) established an identity status paradigm (ISP), which consisted of four statuses: achievement, moratorium, foreclosure and diffusion. Exploration (the active consideration of alternatives) and commitment (the attainment of a clear sense of self-definition) within the occupational, ideological, political, or sex role domains are the two developmental tasks, by which the ISP describes each identity. Although this ISP ignored the role of context, more recent evidence seems to indicate that identity formation is a socially embedded process, and therefore it may be affected by culture. Here, we report a cross-cultural comparison between Egyptian and Kuwaiti undergraduate university students (N = 433) using an Arabic version of the Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Statuses-2 (EOMES-2). All males were more foreclosed than females, but there was no gender effect on the remaining three statuses. More importantly, the by-participant and by-item analyses consistently showed that Egyptians were more achieved and less foreclosed and diffused than Kuwaitis. However, identity moratorium was similar between these two nations. These results suggest that identity formation is not purely an internal psychological process. Rather, it is greatly influenced by the macro- and even micro- contexts. The framework of culture-identity link and other contextual theories of identity are discussed.

Political, religious and occupational identities in context: Placing identity status paradigm in context

This study critically contrasts global identity with domain-specific identities (political, religious and occupational) and considers context and gender as integral parts of identity. In a cross-sectional survey, 1038 Greek Cypriot adolescents (449 boys and 589 girls, mean age 16.8) from the three different types of secondary schools (state, state technical and private) and from different SES completed part of the Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status-2 (EOMEIS-2). The macro-context of Greek Cypriot society is used to understand the role of context in adolescents’ identities. Results showed that Greek Cypriot young people were not in the same statuses across their global, political, religious and occupational identities. This heterogeneity in the status of global identity and of each identity domain is partially explained by differences in gender, type of school and SES (socio-economic status). The fact that identity status is found to be reactive to context suggests that developmental stage models of identity status should place greater emphasis on context.

Identity Statuses Based on 4 Rather Than 2 Identity Dimensions: Extending and Refining Marcia's Paradigm

Four identity dimensions (Commitment Making, Identification with Commitment, Exploration in Depth, and Exploration in Breadth) were used to derive identity statuses by means of cluster analysis in a sample of late adolescents. This strategy resulted in both a qualitative refinement and a quantitative extension of Marcia's (1966) model. Five clusters were retained. Four of those (the Achievement, Moratorium, Foreclosure, and Diffused Diffusion Cluster) bore a striking resemblance to Marcia's original identity statuses in terms of their definition and their associations with criterion variables. Adolescents in the fifth cluster, the Carefree Diffusion Cluster (low to moderate on both commitment dimensions and low on both exploration dimensions), scored as high as the 2 high Commitment Making clusters (i.e., the Achievement and Foreclosure Cluster) on several indicators of adjustment. Personality characteristics further differentiated these clusters in accordance with theory. The advantages of expanding the identity status paradigm, through additional distinctions that pertain to both commitment and exploration, are discussed and practical implications are outlined.

Proliferating Theories: Self and Identity in Post-Eriksonian Context: A Rejoinder to Berzonsky, Kroger, Levine, Phinney, Schachter, and Weigert and Gecas

Focuses on the documentary issues significantly considered to the current study of teenagers and their identities. Interpersonal identity formation during early adolescence; Criticisms on feminist perspectives in its relevance for contemporary identity development research; Examination of the ego identity status paradigm.

Fischer's Skill Theory Applied to Identity Development: A Response to Kroger

This article is a reply to Kroger's proposal (this issue) that the identity statuses can be understood as a developmental hierarchy of stages. In our view, research indicates that the content, strength, and structure (or quality) of commitments evidence a huge variety of patterns and developmental pathways. Accordingly, we argue the following: first, that the identity status paradigm is not well suited as a description for developmental stages in identity development because it does not sufficiently address qualitative differences in commitments and because its statuses do not order themselves in an invariant sequence; and, second, that structural stage models are not the best way to describe identity development because they do not grasp the rich variety of possible identity developmental pathways. Fischer's (1980) skill theory appears more adequate to describe identity development. Application of the principles of this theory to identity development results in an approach that describes identity development as a dynamic system in which the stability and change in commitments result from continuous and mutual interactions between personal and contextual factors. This approach allows for the prediction of variety in pathways for development within any particular psychosocial identity stage, and it describes development as determined by both person and context.

Comparing psychological and sociological approaches to identity: identity status, identity capital, and the individualization process

Psychologists have been studying identity processes at the intrapsychic level that resemble what sociologists have noted at the macro-societal level. Specifically, using the identity capital model introduced in previous issues of this journal (Côté, Journal of Adolescence, 19, 419–430; 20, 421–437), we explore a link between the psychologically oriented identity status paradigm, and the sociologically oriented individualization theory. The primary link between these two disciplinary approaches appears to be that the individualization process can be operationalized in terms of agency in identity formation. The relationship between agency and identity formation has been recognized by identity status researchers for some time, but primarily in terminology referring to the intrapsychic level; hence, in some respects, identity status researchers anticipated individualization theory. This link was empirically investigated in three studies of ethnically diverse samples. It was concluded, with a high degree of replication, that the identity statuses representing identity confusion (Diffusion) and identity synthesis (Achievement) appear to represent forms of default and developmental individualization, respectively. This comparison of similar elements between psychological and sociological perspectives may yield a richer understanding of identity formation processes, and help to pave the way for future interdisciplinary research. Copyright 2002 The Association for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction: Identity Development Through Adulthood

The process of identity development through adulthood has been a topic of growing interest among identity researchers over the past 15 years. Erikson's (1963, 1968) seminal writings on the identity formation task of adolescence have certainly in-spired a wealth of theoretical and research writings on processes and contents associated with initial identity resolutions made toward the end of adolescence. Identity as formed in adolescence, according to Erikson, involves finding an optimal balance between identity and role confusion; this resolution provides the initial framework through which the biological, psychological, and social demands of adult life are en-countered. Marcia's (1966; Marcia, Waterman, Matteson, Archer, & Orlofsky, 1993) elaborations of Erikson's bipolar task of adolescence have been popular in understanding identity processes and contents over adolescence and young adulthood. Researchers using Marcia's identity status paradigm (Marcia, 1966, 1967) have now produced several hundred publications and many valuable insights regarding the identity formation process of adolescence.

Diffuse-Avoidance, Normative, and Informational Identity Styles: Using Identity Theory to Predict Maladjustment

Expanding on the identity status paradigm, this investigation uses 3 forms of identity styles (diffuse-avoidance, normative, and informational) to assess the association among identity and maladjustment. A sample of 2,001 junior and senior high school students in Calgary and Edmonton, Canada completed a self-report that included, among other questions, items assessing the 3 identity styles and degree of adjustment or maladjustment in conduct, hyperactivity, and emotional states. Avariety of analyses indicate that adolescents who are escaping identity formation through a diffuse-avoidance identity style are more likely to manifest conduct and hyperactivity disorders. In contrast, adolescents who establish commitments from prior generations through a normative-identity style, or who engage in an active informational-identity style, are less likely to manifest conduct and hyperactivity problem behavior. Few gender or age differences were observed, suggesting that the technique applied here can be useful with both genders and all ages of adolescents. This study is an initial investigation of contemporary adolescents attempts to escape the self.

Barriers to ego identity status formation: a contextual qualification of Marcia's identity status paradigm

While many psychological, sociological and educational researchers acknowledge that ego identity formation is a socially embedded process, others have found that identity research often focuses, almost exclusively, on internal psychological development. The concept of “barriers” provides a means by which to describe external influences associated with adolescent and young adult ego identity exploration and commitment processes which affect and possibly limit individual developmental options. Based on Erikson's assumption that ego identity formation involves both personal growth and communal change, the barriers qualification expands upon Marica's identity status paradigm to more accurately reflect socio-cultural variables which may have impact upon individual internal psychological function.

Identity formation among African late-adolescents in a contemporary South African context

Questions relating to the domainsof occupation, religion and politics, taken fromMarcia's original Identity Status Interview, as wellas questions on attitudes toward pre-marital sex,formulated by Marcia and Friedman (1970), were used todetermine the nature of identity-related choices (egoidentity statuses) made by 102 African first-yearuniversity students from both sexes in the present-daySouth African circumstances. It was found thatsignificantly more female and also male adolescentsused sophisticated decision-making modes (identityachievement and moratorium) in forming an occupationalidentity, and that males were more inclined to useless sophisticated modes (foreclosure and identitydiffusion) in the area of religion. In contrast tofindings often obtained in Western settings a highproportion of male adolescents achieved a maturepolitical identity, indicating high levels of personaland emotional involvement in political affairs.Significantly more female participants usedsophisticated modes of decision-making in forming asexual identity. A comparison of the patterns ofdecision-making between the sexes revealed nosignificant differences in the domains of occupation,religion, and attitudes toward premarital sex.However, a significant difference was obtained for thedomain of politics, suggesting greater diversity inthe way that female adolescents deal with the world ofpolitics in comparison with males. It can be concludedfrom the findings that Marcia's identity statusparadigm is a fruitful method of studying identityformation in an African context, however, the use ofqualitative methods would provide valuable insightinto the peculiarities of formulating a personalidentity in a different (African) cultural setting.

Parental attachment and identity in Portuguese late adolescents

Based on a life-span attachment perspective and on identity status paradigm, this study investigated the relationship between attachment and identity in a sample of 361 Portuguese late adolescents as a function of parental and adolescent gender. The results indicated gender differences in the association between attachment variables and identity foreclosure. Although adolescents tended to report close emotional bonds with both parents, relationships with mothers seemed to play an important role in the tendency for foreclosure identity in boys. Adolescents who were in diffusion reported the least secure parental attachment and experienced the least separation anxiety. Parental inhibition of exploration and individuality, as perceived by adolescents, did not correlate with the identity dimensions.

The Identity Status Field Re-reviewed: An Update of Unresolved and Neglected Issues with a View on Some Alternative Approaches

An evaluation is made of the identity status paradigm, starting out from the 1988 discussion between Côté and Levine and Waterman. The question as to the construct which underlies the statuses is still relevant, and understandably so, since Marcia's definition of identity contains different elements of the construct of ego identity than his identity status model. However, both the definition and the statuses also neglect the sine qua non of identity, namely a sense of temporal–spatial continuity. This is surprising, as an extensive analysis of the field shows that many research areas could have formed a receptive ground for its determination. Furthermore, in contrast to the claims made by the status field, there are shortcomings in the validation of the identity statuses. Another important characteristic of the identity status paradigm is its contradictory views regarding development: along with the claim that there is no developmental continuum underlying the statuses, ideas are also presented on developmental (continuumlike) hypotheses. A review of empirical studies on identity status changes through time is presented. This reveals that in general the statuses excel in measuring stability and that no significant developmental changes are found in the studies. Finally, the state of research regarding factors that influence identity development is related to the findings of the present overview, and in conclusion some alternative approaches to identity formation are presented.