Ibn Rushd Research Articles

ABSTRACT What colours do we see in the rainbow? Pre-modern discussions are often based on translations and commentaries of ancient Greek texts, in particular Aristotle’s Meteorology. This study traces how Aristotle’s colour terminology was received and reinterpreted in Arabic, Judeo-Arabic, and Hebrew texts from the ninth to thirteenth centuries, focusing particularly on Ibn Biṭrīq, Ibn Rushd, and Samuel Ibn Tibbon. It explores how translators and commentators negotiated between semantic equivalence and linguistic distinctiveness and argues that inherited Greek colour terminologies reflects both shared cultural environments and different processes of translation, interpretation, and adaptation.

The Middle Ages were an important period for the development of Islamic philosophy. The philosophical branches that emerged in the Islamic world during this era contributed not only to Islamic countries but also to intellectual development in Europe. This study will consider the main features of medieval Islamic philosophy and its connections with European Scholastic thought. Islamic philosophy was formed under the influence of ancient Greek philosophy and developed with the translation of the works of Aristotle and Plato into Arabic. Philosophers such as Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and Ibn Rushd were able to contribute to the fields of logic, metaphysics, and epistemology by systematizing this thought. Academic centers such as the "House of Wisdom" that emerged in Baghdad played an important role in the spread of science and philosophy. European Scholasticism underwent changes since the twelfth century, thanks to philosophical and scientific works from the Islamic world. The translation work carried out during this period in regions such as Andalusia and Sicily enabled Ibn Rushd's commentaries on Aristotle to reach Europe and contributed to the formation of Western thought. One of the Scholastic philosophers, Thomas Aquinas, was impressed by the works of Ibn Rushd and tried to establish Christian theology on a rational basis. In this article, the influence of medieval Islamic philosophy on European thought and worldview will be considered from a historical and philosophical point of view, and attention will be paid to the importance of intellectual interaction between two civilizations.

The results of this study show that Andalusian literature constituted a fundamental pillar in the development of Arabic literature, characterized by innovation and creativity as a result of the cultural diversity and intellectual interaction that Andalusia witnessed throughout its various eras. Andalusia was a cultural crossroads that brought together Muslims, Jews, and Christians, contributing to the formulation of diverse literary and intellectual styles. Andalusian literature was influenced by Persian, Indian, and Greek literatures, which helped in developing various literary genres, most notably philosophical prose and narrative literature (Siraj, 2011).The study also revealed the impact of cultural interaction between Arabs, Jews, and Christians on Andalusian literary thought, reflected in the diversity of literary texts. Andalusian literature included multiple styles such as emotional, philosophical, and narrative poetry, and was distinguished by the use of new poetic forms like muwashshah, which blended Arabic, Hebrew, and Latin, giving Andalusian literature a unique character distinct from traditional Arabic literature (Peroz, 2016).Intellectually, the study showed that the works of philosophers like Ibn Rushd and Ibn Zaydun are rich in rational elements influenced by Persian and Indian thought, where they developed. Ibn Rushd developed the ideas of Ibn Sina, contributing to the enrichment of Islamic philosophy and expanding its influence on Western philosophy in the Middle Ages (Mahmoud, 2008).Graphical Analysis (First Curve):The graphical curve indicated that the influence of Andalusian literature on Arabic poetry began to rise in the 9th century AD, peaking during the Abbasid and Mamluk periods (13th-14th centuries), before gradually declining while still maintaining its literary impact. As for the influence on Persian poetry, it was slow at first but then clearly increased with the onset of the Safavid era (16th century), reaching its peak in the 17th and 18th centuries. The curve also shows that the influence of Andalusian literature on classical Spanish literature peaked in the 16th-17th centuries, as seen in the works of Cervantes, before declining in the 18th-19th centuries, only to witness renewed interest in the 20th century.

Through a philosophical examination of the thinking of AlGhazali and Ibn Rushd, this research examines the dialectics of classical Islamic epistemology and contemporary Islamic Religious Education (IRE). The study’s driving force is the epistemological issues of current IRE, which is frequently seen as normative and lacking in critical engagement, necessitating a more comprehensive philosophical framework. The goals are to analyze the dialectical connection between the two authors, describe their epistemology, and discuss its significance for contemporary IRE. Utilizing primary materials from AlGhazali and Ibn Rushd as well as pertinent secondary literature, this work adopts a philosophical-hermeneutic approach to library research. According to the findings, Ibn Rushd prioritizes rationality and the compatibility of philosophy and sharī’a, whereas AlGhazali’s epistemology combines reason and intuition (kashf) with a focus on spirituality. Their dialectics yield an inclusive epistemological framework that reconciles rational-critical and moral-spiritual components. The implication is that modern IRE can be cultivated as a middle-of-the-road, conversational, and globally relevant educational model. Theoretically, this study adds to the discussion of Islamic philosophy of education, and practically, it helps to create modern IRE curricula.

Despite the high burden and regional variability of ovarian cancer (OC), data on its status in Syria, a country impacted by long-standing conflict, remain scarce. This study aimed to provide the first nationwide analysis of OC epidemiological and clinicopathological characteristics. In this national, multicenter, retrospective cross-sectional study, we collected data from three tertiary referral university hospitals in Syria: Tishreen University Hospital, Al-Bairouni University Hospital, and Ibn Rushd Hospital. The inclusion period spanned from 2017 to 2021. All included patients were 18 years or older and had a newly diagnosed, confirmed primary OC. Data collected included sociodemographic information, presenting symptoms, CA-125 levels, and treatment details. A total of 531 patients with OC with a mean age of 53.1 years (range: 18-91) were included in the study, representing 1.2% (95% confidence interval: 1.1%-1.3%) of the 44,248 patients diagnosed with all types of cancer. Serous carcinoma (55.4%) was the most common OC subtype, followed by mucinous (13.8%) and endometrioid carcinoma (9.7%). Among epithelial OCs, having high levels of CA-125 was associated with higher odds of serous carcinoma (adjusted OR: 2.30, 95% CI: 1.08-4.91) and lower odds of endometrioid cancer adjusted OR: 0.21, 95% CI: 0.08-0.54). Abdominal bloating was the most frequently reported symptom, affecting 194 patients (36.5%). Our study revealed a lower proportion of OCs diagnoses among all cancer cases compared to global and regional data which may be attributed to underreporting, influenced by the disease's specific characteristics and presence of more barriers for women to healthcare access in Syria's conflict-affected setting. Given the study's limitations, further research is essential to provide a more comprehensive assessment of the OC burden in Syria.

This article critically examines the thoughts of Thomas Kuhn and Ibn Rushd in order to understand the epistemological structure and dynamics of science, by highlighting two fundamental concepts: paradigm and rationality. Thomas Kuhn, through his theory of scientific revolutions , argued that the development of science does not occur linearly and cumulatively, but rather through paradigm leaps triggered by internal crises in the scientific community and resolved through collective consensus. On the other hand, Ibn Rushd, as a representative of rationalist philosophers in the classical Islamic thought treasury, places reason and logic as universal epistemic foundations in revealing scientific truth, and firmly rejects the dominance of theological authority that hinders freedom of thought. This study reveals that although both come from different traditions and historical contexts, there is a common ground in the critical attitude towards intellectual stagnation and the drive to open up space for renewal of thought. However, epistemologically, both show sharp divergences: Kuhn is based on contextual paradigmatic relativism, while Ibn Rushd is rooted in transhistorical rational objectivism. Using a comparative-philosophical approach, this article concludes that a critical synthesis of the two views can enrich contemporary discourse on the foundations and direction of the development of science.

This study aims to examine the development of Islamic civilization and thought in Spain, particularly during the golden era of Al-Andalus (711–1492 CE). Employing a literature review approach, this research gathers and analyzes various historical and scholarly sources that discuss the contributions of Muslims in science, philosophy, art, and culture. The findings reveal that Al-Andalus served as an intellectual hub of the Islamic world, acting as a bridge of knowledge between the East and the West. Figures such as Ibn Rushd and Ibn Arabi demonstrated remarkable achievements in philosophy and mysticism, with their ideas also influencing intellectual developments in Europe. Furthermore, the harmonious interaction among Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Al-Andalus fostered a climate of tolerance that invigorated the exchange of knowledge and culture. This research underscores that the legacy of Islamic civilization in Spain holds significance not only for Islamic history but also for the advancement of global civilization.

This article discusses the influence of ideas of the Islamic Philosopher ibn Rushd (Averroes) on the European intellectual world and how it contributed to the enlightenment process. Ibn Rushd, through his interpretations of the works of Aristotle, played an important role in the development of philosophical and scientific thought both in the Islamic world and in medieval Europe. His views on the relationship between reason and revelation, his views defending the independence of reason and supporting rationalist epistemology, gained popularity in Western thought, especially through his works translated into Latin in the XII-XIII centuries. Ibn Rushd's works were discussed by such thinkers as Thomas Aquinas, Siger de Brabantia, and Dante, which paved the way for the emergence of a philosophical current called "averroism". His explanations based on reason were an important reference in the process leading to Renaissance thought and later to the European Enlightenment. In addition, the ideas that he adhered to that scientific knowledge could exist without contradicting religious authority contributed to the development of modern secular thought. This study examines the historical process of the transition of Ibn Rushd's ideas to Western philosophy and analyzes its influence on science, philosophy and theology in Europe. It also aims to reveal the role of Islamic philosophy in intellectual transformation in Europe by discussing the influence of its rationalist heritage on the philosophers of the Enlightenment.

Religion, fаith аnd philosophy, the issue of reаson, is not only in todаy's globаlizаtion processes, but аlso historicаlly distinguished by its relevаnce аnd sensitivity. It embodies the results of the inner world of mаn, his fаith аnd intelligence, in which eаch person hаs his own position. Mаny philosophers hаve expressed their views on this issue. One such philosopher wаs Ibn Rushd, who аttempted to reconcile these two spheres in his concept of the «two truths».

This article explores the application of the theories of al-Inâyah (Providence) and al-Ikhtirâ’ (Creation) as a Quranic approach. The analysis is based on Ibn Rushd’s Manâhij al-Adillah fî Aqâ’id al-Millah, highlighting how he integrates Greek philosophy with Islam to explain God as the First Cause and the Organizer of the universe. The method used is library research with a content analysis approach. The results show that Ibn Rushd views the order of the universe as a manifestation of God's will, where creation itself serves as evidence of a Creator with a divine purpose. The theories of al-Inâyah and al-Ikhtirâ’ are employed to argue that the universe’s order and complexity are the results of divine intention, in line with Quranic teachings about God as Creator and Organizer. This study finds that Ibn Rushd combines Aristotelian philosophy with Quranic teachings to provide a more comprehensive understanding of God. Using both reason and revelation, he portrays God as an essence that transcends the physical realm. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding on Islamic theology by showing the compatibility between rational inquiry and divine revelation. This study also demonstrates Ibn Rushd’s significant influence on both Islamic and Western philosophical traditions, reflecting a profound integration of philosophy and theology in conceptualizing the divine.

ABSTRACT Besides God's role as the First Mover, in Ibn Rushd's Metaphysics, God also represents the First Form, which is the cause of all forms in the world. But how can the existence of a variety of forms be reconciled with a causing single First Form? This article will present three phases in the development of this problem by Ibn Rushd. After a comparison of these with the concept of unification of the laws of nature in modern physics, the article concludes with a proposal to introduce objects of modern mathematics into Ibn Rushd's concept of the unification of forms.

The article discusses the understudied issue of the reformist-modernist reception of falsafa, the main philosophical theology school of classical Islam. Falsafa greatest representatives include the peripatetics al-Farabi (d. 950), Ibn Sina (Avicenna; d. 1037), and Ibn Rushd (Averroes; d. 1198). The revival of their ideas, many of which were ahead of their time and were traditionally considered heterodox (sometimes even heretical), is exemplified by the work of the founders of modernist theology of the 19th–20th centuries, primarily Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1838/1839–1897) and Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905). They focused on developing a discourse more open to confessional and religious diversity (both within Islam and on a global scale), scientific rationality, and spiritual and cultural progress. In addition to the re-actua­lization of the universalist-pluralist attitude as the basis of the inclusivist concept of dialogue, the continuity with Falsafi theology can be traced below along lines related to the theses on eternalist creationism, natural prophetism, and soteriological presentism.

ABSTRACT The question of whether the universe can or must come to an end is rarely addressed in Arabic philosophy but informs the Second Discussion of al-Ghazālī’s Incoherence of the Philosophers and Ibn Rushd’s rejoinder in his Incoherence of the Incoherence. The philosophical debate between the two reveals limits to the symmetries between time and space in Aristotelian thinking. Additionally, we discern in Ibn Rushd’s responses a dedication to scientific reasoning even in the face of theological concerns, while al-Ghazālī is more willing to make allowances—within a rational worldview—for events that fall outside the normal course of nature.

This study aims to explore the development and transformation of Islamic thought from its classical roots to contemporary expressions, with a focus on how it responds to modern global challenges such as democracy, human rights, gender equality, and environmental issues. The theoretical framework draws upon the works of classical and modern Islamic scholars, including Al-Ghazali, Ibn Rushd, Muhammad Abduh, and Fazlur Rahman, emphasizing the dynamic interplay between wahy (revelation) and aql (reason), as well as the concept of ijtihad (independent reasoning) and contextual interpretation. Using a qualitative, descriptive-analytical method, this study analyzes selected texts and scholarly contributions to trace the historical trajectory and current discourse within Islamic thought. The findings indicate that Islamic thought is not monolithic, but rather evolves in response to historical and social contexts. Contemporary Muslim thinkers increasingly emphasize the need for contextualization, ethical renewal, and reinterpretation of Islamic sources to remain relevant in the face of current challenges. These results highlight that modern Islamic thought holds significant potential to contribute to social justice, inclusive governance, and human development when rooted in both textual integrity and contextual awareness. The implication of this research is the need to revitalize Islamic education and scholarly engagement with a focus on critical, reformist, and ethical approaches. The originality of this study lies in its synthesis of classical and modern perspectives within a unified narrative that frames Islamic thought as a living, adaptable intellectual tradition capable of informing contemporary discourse in meaningful ways.

Discussions about philosophy are dialectical. Until now there is still a long debate, especially regarding the construction of philosophy and the elements of philosophy. Especially, if look the existence of philosophy in the Islamic world. The role and implications of ancient Greek philosophy as a thought that intrinsically contains critical-philosophical values contribute to Islamic civilisation. The open, critical, and dialectical style of thought from ancient Greece gave birth to Muslim philosophers such as al-Kindi, al-Farabi, al-Razi, to al-Ghazali and Ibn Rushd. Despite the views that reject philosophy, it turns out that philosophy also has a great influence on Muslims. Departing from that, this research seeks to examine the role of philosophy, especially philosophy from ancient Greek civilisation, in the formation of critical-philosophical thinking of Muslims in the early period. The method used in this research is library research. In the process of analysis, this research produces the conclusion that philosophy has a considerable role in Islamic civilisation, especially in shaping the critical-philosophical thinking of Muslims. Some indications that can be known are, making philosophical values as a way to answer the problem of Islamic theology, being a factor in the formulation of the methodology for interpreting authoritative sources (al-Qur'an and Hadith), to strengthen the epistemological basis of Sufism studies.

This article presents a comparative analysis of Poetics in the writings of two major medieval Islamic philosophers: Abū Naṣr al-Fārābī (Al-Farabi) and Abū ‘Alī Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna). Both scholars engaged deeply with Aristotle’s Poetics, integrating it into the Arabic-Islamic intellectual milieu. Al-Farabi’s Canons of Poetry and Ibn Sina’s Poetics (as part of his encyclopedic Kitāb al-Shifā’, “Book of Healing”) are examined to elucidate their respective theories of poetic art. Key areas of comparison include their classification of poetics within the Aristotelian logical corpus, their conceptions of poetic syllogism and imaginative “assent,” and their treatment of tragedy and comedy as high versus low forms of art. Drawing on Aristotle’s legacy and the Neoplatonic context, Al-Farabi and Avicenna each made distinct contributions: Al-Farabi emphasized the logical and social function of poetry (often linking it to rhetoric and political philosophy) while Avicenna expanded the moral and psychological dimensions of poetics. Influences from Aristotle’s Poetics and late antique commentary are traced, alongside insights from modern scholars (e.g. Dimitri Gutas, Jon Walbridge, Seyyed Hossein Nasr, and Abd al-Raḥmān Badawī). The study concludes that Ibn Sina’s commentary builds upon and departs from Al-Farabi’s foundations – for instance, by rejecting the notion that poetic syllogisms must be false and by affirming the role of imaginative discourse in eliciting emotional responses and conveying moral insights. This comparative inquiry sheds light on how medieval Islamic thinkers preserved, interpreted, and transformed Aristotle’s Poetics, laying groundwork for subsequent literary theory in both the Islamic world and, via Ibn Rushd (Averroes), medieval Europe.

The current study aimed to analyse the concept of interreligious engagement (IE) or interfaith dialogue (ID) for the medieval period (MP), considering a global, pluralistic, and interdependent society that transcends contemporary society. The study investigated the philosophical inheritance of medieval Muslims on the issue of IE and ID. The thematic approach was used in this study. The interactions of Muslim intellectuals were taken into consideration, such as Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, Al-Ghazali, Al-Biruni, Ibn Arabi, Al-Shatibi, Ibn Rushd, and Al-Razi with various theological and philosophical traditions, especially Judaism and Christianity. This study showed that although the term IE is unknown in the medieval Muslim intellectual tradition, nevertheless, it offers some insights. This is because this attitude maintained the notion that truth could be derived from various sources, such as from the traditions of other religions and therefore, true knowledge is, by nature, inclusive. They founded a tradition of discourse that blends rationality and revelation. They asserted that human reason and religious revelation do not oppose, however, could illuminate each other. To be sure, science and spirituality may converse and inspire each other. Interfaith discourse, such as medieval Muslim scholarship, is a movement beyond passive tolerance. It pursues common ground, respects divergent positions, and, when possible, seeks partnership in advancing mutual interests.

In philosophy, especially in the rich Eastern philosophical heritage , the issue of revelation, which occupies an important place, was approached as a problem by the Eastern peripatetics and explained it as a special form of knowledge belonging to the highest level of reason. Al-Kindi, Farabi, Ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Khaldun and other Eastern philosophers, taking revelation beyond the religious framework , comprehensively examined it as a phenomenon presented to society as an independent and pure thought, guiding the development of separate cultures and civilizations, uniting different peoples and nations around a single idea, and approached it from various aspects. As we have noted, despite the great importance that philosophers attach to this issue, since the issue of revelation in their worldview has not been studied at the appropriate level in Azerbaijan, this topic can be considered quite relevant. As a result of the rapid and intensive nature of information exchange, the human brain, overloaded with information, increases its knowledge and information base with every passing second; on the other hand, it shortens its life. Today, millions of "web" sites that embrace the world and are called "spider webs" have become a material force to a greater extent than at the beginning of the last century, and have succeeded in changing the balance of forces striving for leadership in the world in their favor. Religious feelings and our way of life, which is considered the spiritual treasure of people and has become national customs and traditions that have filtered through the memory of centuries, are losing their vitality and are giving way to the material interests of an increasingly globalized world. However, it is also a fact that the sense of holiness, which no ideology can destroy, and which is born with us from nature, cannot be subordinated to these interests. In this sense, we consider it more important to bring to the fore the saving function of revelation, its universal essence that can benefit and help global problems, not as a controversial problem. For this reason, the fact that the monograph resonates with the demands of the modern era also emphasizes its relevance.

This research explores the development of scientific research methodology in Islamic thought, focusing on tools and concepts from the classical era to the digital age. In the classical era, scholars used traditional tools such as texts and manuscripts, emphasizing rational and legal methodologies. Prominent contributors such as Ibn Sina, Al-Ghazali, and Ibn Rushd made significant contributions by developing analytical tools and critical methodologies. In the modern era, globalization and technology have greatly impacted Islamic scientific research, facilitating knowledge exchange and enhancing international collaboration. Digital tools and modern techniques, such as digital textual analysis, have emerged, improving research methodologies. Challenges include keeping up with technological advancements and preserving cultural identity, while opportunities lie in expanding the scope of research and improving its quality. The research recommendations include enhancing education and training, improving research infrastructure, and focusing on ethics and inclusivity to ensure the balanced and sustainable advancement of Islamic research methodologies.

The increasing phenomenon of individuals choosing to be single in the modern era is a significant social change. Various factors such as career busyness, individual freedom, and changes in social values ​​have influenced people's mindsets towards the institution of marriage. This study analyzes how the critical reasoning of the Qur'an responds to the phenomenon of being single with a multidisciplinary approach that combines the historical reasoning of Muhammad Arkoun, the epistemology of Al-Ghazali, and the fiqh of ikhtilaf of Ibn Rushd. The research method used is library research, by making the Qur'an as the main source in responding to the law of celibacy (rahbaniyah). Secondary data was obtained from relevant books of interpretation, history, sociology, and psychology. The results of the study show that although Islam does not absolutely prohibit individuals from being single, marriage remains an institution recommended in Islam to maintain social stability and the sustainability of civilization. In the dialectical analysis, it was found that Arkoun emphasized the historical and social context in understanding Islamic teachings, while Al-Ghazali saw the spiritual and moral aspects of the individual in the decision to be single. Ibn Rushd, with his ikhtilaf fiqh approach, emphasized that marriage has flexible laws depending on the individual and social conditions. Therefore, this study concludes that marriage is more recommended than being single because it has broader benefits in social, economic, and psychological aspects, although it still provides space for individuals to consider their personal conditions.