Hydrogen Storage Research Articles

Gaseous Hydrogen Storage: Techno‐Economic Analysis

Hydrogen storage plays a crucial role in enabling its large‐scale adoption as an energy carrier. This study examines the technical and economic aspects of storing hydrogen in 200‐bar pressure vessels. It focuses on the impact of different transportation methods, including 350‐bar trailers, 540‐bar trailers, and pipelines, on storage performance and costs. Key factors analyzed include pressure and temperature variations during the filling process, the levelized cost of hydrogen storage, and the combined levelized cost of hydrogen transportation and storage. The results indicate that higher mass flow rates lead to increased temperature fluctuations, requiring careful control to maintain safe operating conditions. Additionally, while the levelized storage costs decrease with increasing hydrogen demand, the choice of transportation method significantly influences the total cost. The analysis shows that 350‐bar trailers offer the most cost‐effective transport and storage solution for short to medium distances, whereas, 540‐bar trailers become more viable at longer distances. These insights provide a foundation for optimizing hydrogen infrastructure, balancing cost and efficiency in storage and distribution.

A catalytic cycle that enables crude hydrogen separation, storage and transportation

A catalytic cycle that enables crude hydrogen separation, storage and transportation

Engineered supramolecular crystals for high-capacity hydrogen storage

Engineered supramolecular crystals for high-capacity hydrogen storage

Promising Alloys for Hydrogen Storage in the Compositional Space of (TiVNb)100-x(Cr,Mo)x High-Entropy Alloys.

This study reports on the search for the most promising alloys in the compositional space of (TiVNb)80Cr20-xMox (x = 5, 10, and 15) and (TiVNb)75Cr25-xMox (x = 5, 10, 15, and 20) high-entropy alloys. First, data-driven machine learning applied to these systems predicts that increasing the Mo content destabilizes the enthalpy of the hydride phases. Second, experimental and density functional theory (DFT) validations were performed. The as-prepared alloys have single-phase bcc lattices and rapidly absorb hydrogen to form fcc-type hydrides with a high capacity between 1.6 and 2.0 H/M. Despite a positive effect on the thermodynamics of the hydride phases, increasing the Mo content in these alloys has a negative effect on the maximum capacity. The cycling experiments highlight the need to balance the reversible capacity, cycle life, and crystalline stabilities of these phases. Therefore, considering all these results, the most promising alloy with trade-off properties within the targeted compositional space has been identified to be (TiVNb)75Cr5Mo20 that shows a maximum capacity of 2.6 wt % (1.8 H/M), a reasonable enthalpy of hydride formation (-38.6 kJ/mol H2), and a notable gravimetric reversible capacity of 1.42 wt % at room temperature. To identify the most promising high-entropy alloys for this application, integrated machine learning predictions followed by experimental and DFT validations proved to be an effective strategy.

Gas turbine capacity planning method incorporating tiered carbon trading and two-stage power-to-gas integration

To address the challenges of high carbon emissions in traditional power systems, which conflict with China’s “dual carbon” strategy, and the difficulty of integrating wind power into the grid, this study proposes a novel gas turbine capacity planning method that integrates a tiered carbon trading mechanism, two-stage power-to-gas (P2G) devices, and Carbon capture power plants (CCPP). First, a joint operation model is developed, integrating gas turbines, two-stage P2G devices, CCPP, and wind turbines while accounting for wind power output uncertainty. Then, a tiered carbon trading mechanism is introduced. Unlike conventional models that apply a uniform carbon price, the proposed framework adopts a differentiated carbon cost structure to better reflect emission levels and incentivize cleaner energy deployment. The objective is to minimize the total investment and operational costs of the system, subject to standard operational constraints and transmission security limits. Finally, case studies based on a modified IEEE 30-bus system are conducted to quantitatively evaluate the impact of the proposed mechanism, gas turbines, and P2G devices on economic performance, wind power utilization, and carbon emissions. The results confirm the feasibility and effectiveness of the planning model, highlight the roles of carbon trading policy, natural gas prices, and hydrogen storage efficiency, and offer valuable insights for investment decision-making under carbon and energy market uncertainties.

Linking the Microstructure of Ball-Milled Mg–Ni Hydrogen Storage Materials to Reactive Properties and Techno-Economic Feasibility

Linking the Microstructure of Ball-Milled Mg–Ni Hydrogen Storage Materials to Reactive Properties and Techno-Economic Feasibility

Highly Dispersed Cobalt Phosphide in Zeolites: Unlocking Superior Efficiency in Ammonia Borane Hydrolysis.

Ammonia borane (AB) is a promising material for chemical hydrogen storage; however, efficient hydrogen generation often relies on expensive noble metal catalysts. Herein, highly dispersed sub-3nm transition metal phosphide nanoparticles supported in amino-functionalized Beta zeolites are developed using a facile impregnation method. The optimized Co-Co2P/NH2-Beta catalyst, benefiting from the structural modulation of cobalt phosphides and their interaction with the Brønsted acid sites of zeolites, achieves a high hydrogen generation rate of 240.0 molH2 molCo -1 min-1 at 298 K during AB hydrolysis. Both experimental results and theoretical calculations emphasize that Co2P exhibits stronger adsorption and lower dissociation energy barriers for both H2O and AB compared to CoP. Furthermore, the introduction of metallic Co and/or phosphorus vacancies into Co2P through H2 reduction significantly enhances catalytic efficiency. This work provides valuable insights for the design of high-performance zeolite-supported ultrasmall TMP catalysts, paving the way for more efficient chemical hydrogen storage solutions.

Is it Hydrogen Energy the Future? Current Development of Hydrogen Purification and Storage Technologies: A Review

Hydrogen energy is considered to be one of the most environmentally friendly and potential green energy options due to its characteristics of producing only water and no carbon emissions after combustion. Low‐carbon and zero‐carbon can be achieved using hydrogen energy. Therefore, in the future, it will be the mainstream because it can achieve the goal of net‐zero carbon emissions. Hydrogen can be obtained using hydrogen purification technologies, which are mainly divided into pressure swing adsorption technology, condensation separation technology, metal palladium membrane separation technology, and metal hydride separation technology. Hydrogen storage technologies are mainly divided into compressed hydrogen storage, liquefied hydrogen storage, cryo‐compressed hydrogen storage, metal hydrides hydrogen storage, liquid organic hydrogen carriers, and underground hydrogen storage. Additionally, with the increasing focus on renewable energy, solid‐state hydrogen storage holds great promise for future applications in various sectors.

Comparative Designs for Standalone Critical Loads Between PV/Battery and PV/Hydrogen Systems

This study presents the design and techno-economic comparison of two standalone photovoltaic (PV) systems, each supplying a 1 kW critical load with 100% reliability under Cairo’s climatic conditions. These systems are modeled for both the constant and the night load scenarios, accounting for the worst-case weather conditions involving 3.5 consecutive cloudy days. The primary comparison focuses on traditional lead-acid battery storage versus green hydrogen storage via electrolysis, compression, and fuel cell reconversion. Both the configurations are simulated using a Python-based tool that calculates hourly energy balance, component sizing, and economic performance over a 21-year project lifetime. The results show that the PV/H2 system significantly outperforms the PV/lead-acid battery system in both the cost and the reliability. For the constant load, the Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) drops from 0.52 USD/kWh to 0.23 USD/kWh (a 56% reduction), and the payback period is shortened from 16 to 7 years. For the night load, the LCOE improves from 0.67 to 0.36 USD/kWh (a 46% reduction). A supplementary cost analysis using lithium-ion batteries was also conducted. While Li-ion improves the economics compared to lead-acid (LCOE of 0.41 USD/kWh for the constant load and 0.49 USD/kWh for the night load), this represents a 21% and a 27% reduction, respectively. However, the green hydrogen system remains the most cost-effective and scalable storage solution for achieving 100% reliability in critical off-grid applications. These findings highlight the potential of green hydrogen as a sustainable and economically viable energy storage pathway, capable of reducing energy costs while ensuring long-term resilience.

Waste as a Source of Fuel and Developments in Hydrogen Storage: Applied Cases in Spain and Their Future Potential

The integration of renewable energy with circular economy strategies offers effective pathways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions while enhancing local energy independence. This study analyses three real-world projects implemented in Spain that exemplify this synergy. LIFE Smart Agromobility converts pig manure into biomethane to power farm vehicles, using anaerobic digestion and microalgae-based upgrading systems. Smart Met Value refines biogas from a wastewater treatment plant in Guadalajara to produce high-purity biomethane for the municipal fleet, demonstrating the viability of energy recovery from sewage sludge. The UNDERGY project addresses green hydrogen storage by repurposing a depleted natural gas reservoir, showing geochemical and geomechanical feasibility for seasonal underground hydrogen storage. Each project utilises regionally available resources to produce clean fuels—biomethane or hydrogen—while mitigating methane and CO2 emissions. Results show significant energy recovery potential: biomethane production can replace a substantial portion of fossil fuel use in rural and urban settings, while hydrogen storage provides a scalable solution for surplus renewable energy. These applied cases demonstrate not only the technical feasibility but also the socio-economic benefits of integrating waste valorisation and energy transition technologies. Together, they represent replicable models for sustainable development and energy resilience across Europe and beyond.

Investigation of the Structural and Mechanical Properties of PET for the Development of Hydrogen Storage Tank Liner Materials

The aim of this study is to investigate the structural and mechanical properties of PET-based materials for potential use as liner materials in high-pressure hydrogen storage tanks. The research focuses on the effect of post-heat treatment, which influences the crystallinity of PET and, consequently, its mechanical behavior. Standardized specimens produced by injection molding were heat treated at 120 °C and 150 °C for different durations (5, 10, 15, and 30 minutes), followed by rapid quenching in ice water to stop the crystallization process. The degree of crystallinity was determined using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), while mechanical properties were evaluated through tensile testing. According to the results, higher heat treatment temperature significantly increased the crystallinity and improved the tensile strength, while reducing elongation. Based on the findings, the optimization of heat treatment parameters offers an opportunity to fine-tune the properties of PET, and may serve as a basis for future gas barrier and permeability studies.

In-situ formed Ti/TiH2 from exfoliated few-layered Ti3C2Tx as hydrogen pump enhances the hydrogen storage properties of MgH2.

In-situ formed Ti/TiH2 from exfoliated few-layered Ti3C2Tx as hydrogen pump enhances the hydrogen storage properties of MgH2.

The impacts of diagenesis on bioturbated ramp deposits: A study of Arab-D outcrops in Wadi Malham, Central Saudi Arabia

Understanding how bioturbation influences diagenetic processes is critical for predicting final rock textures and their petrophysical properties. This study investigates how diagenesis alters bioturbated, mud-dominated carbonates in the upper part of the Late Jurassic Jubaila Formation, central Saudi Arabia—a unit characterized by extensive dolomitization. The studied 7.8-meter-thick interval contains 22 beds. Most beds (54%) consist of burrowed, mud-dominated intraclastic floatstones and rudstones (LF1), interpreted as middle ramp deposits. Two thin grain-dominated beds (LF2 and LF3), each ∼15 cm thick and together comprising only 4%, are interpreted as storm-event deposits. The dolomitized lithofacies include burrowed dolomitic limestones (LF4, 30%) and burrowed dolostones (LF5, 12%). LF1 contains dolomitized Thalassinoides unrelated to stratigraphic surfaces, whereas LF4 and LF5 exhibit surface-controlled Glossifungites ichnofacies. In LF4, dolomitization is largely restricted to burrow fillings, decreasing downward in intensity, paralleling bioturbation intensity. Sparse dolomite crystals appear in the host matrix. LF5 contains dolomite crystals in both burrows and matrix, showing non-fabric-preserving textures. Petrographic and geochemical data indicate dedolomitization (calcitized dolomite) in LF5, with calcitization intensity decreasing from bed tops downward. These findings suggest bioturbation significantly influenced dolomitization through: (1) passive burrow fillings acting as permeability pathways for dolomitizing fluids, or (2) dolomite formation triggered by organic matter degradation and microbial activity under anoxic conditions. Dedolomitization may follow similar pathways, with intercrystalline porosity in burrow fillings allowing calcium-rich fluids to calcitize dolomite. Since dolomitization improves porosity and permeability in these mud-rich lithofacies, understanding the spatial distribution of dolomite and its formation mechanisms is essential for predicting reservoir quality. These insights have implications for both hydrocarbon reservoir development and assessing the potential of such formations for subsurface geological storage, including carbon sequestration and hydrogen storage.

Hydrogen Production via Potassium Formate Hydrolysis on Metal–Organic Framework Supported Pd‐Based Catalysts

Formate hydrolysis is a promising, safe, nontoxic, and mild method for hydrogen generation. Nevertheless, it is restricted by low hydrogen storage capacity and low reaction rate. Herein, Pd‐ and Pd–Ni‐based catalysts using MIL‐88 as supports are designed and synthesized for potassium formate hydrolysis to hydrogen. Results indicate that the hydrogen production rate with applied Pd/MIL‐88, showing a spindle rod structure, is better than that of Pd/MIL‐101. Moreover, with the further introduction of Ni, turnover frequency of Pd–Ni/MIL‐88 reaches 863.6 h−1 at 60 °C, increasing by 250.8% compared with Pd/MIL‐88 at 60 °C, owing to electron transfer from Ni to Pd. In situ diffuse reflectance infrared Flourier transformation spectroscopy‐mass spectrometer with the participation of deuterium oxide is carried out to reveal the mechanism of formate hydrolysis on the Pd/MIL‐88 catalyst, indicating that the HCOO* and H2O* are successively activated on the Pd surface, and two H* derived from both HCOO* or HCOO * +H2O* eventually form hydrogen.

Finite Element Analysis Framework for Structural Safety Evaluation of Type IV Hydrogen Storage Vessel

Type IV composite overwrapped pressure vessels (COPVs) store hydrogen at pressures up to 70 MPa and must meet stringent safety standards through physical testing. However, full-scale burst, plug torque, axial compression, impact, and drop tests are time-consuming and costly. This study proposes a unified finite element analysis (FEA) workflow that replicates these mandatory tests and predicts failure behavior without physical prototypes. Axisymmetric and three-dimensional solid models with reduced-integration elements were constructed for the polyamide liner, aluminum boss, and carbon/epoxy composite. Burst simulations showed that increasing the hoop-to-axial stiffness ratio shifts peak stress to the cylindrical region, promoting a longitudinal rupture—considered structurally safer. Plug torque and axial load simulations revealed critical stresses at the boss–composite interface, which can be reduced through neck boss shaping and layup optimization. A localized impact with a 25 mm sphere generated significantly higher stress than a larger 180 mm impactor under equal energy. Drop tests confirmed that 45° oblique drops cause the most severe dome stresses due to thin walls and the lack of hoop support. The proposed workflow enables early-stage structural validation, supports cost-effective design optimization, and accelerates the development of safe hydrogen storage systems for automotive and aerospace applications.

COORDINATED MODELING OF GEOCHEMICAL AND MICROBIOLOGICAL PROCESSES DURING UNDERGROUND STORAGE OF HYDROGEN WITH METHANE

The article considers the coordinated mathematical modeling of geochemical and microbiological processes in the underground storage of hydrogen with methane, implemented using a modern 3D hydrodynamic simulator. In this article, based on previously completed work, a coordinated mathematical model is proposed that integrates the consideration of all the factors considered. An attempt was made to develop a model (by enumerating many considered options and filtering out unsuitable ones), the most worthy and adapted - for implementation by means of common packages of geological and hydrodynamic modeling (simulators).Previously, the authors considered the creation of underground hydrogen storage facilities in aquifers and depleted gas fields using hydrodynamic modeling. The models obtained in this article are applicable to calculating the processes of creating underground hydrogen storage facilities in water-saturated formations and depleted hydrocarbon fields.The calculation of hydrodynamic models is performed by means of the IRM tNavigator package. A composite model is used for the description of the fluids. To describe the interactions between reservoir microorganisms, fluid and rock skeleton (taking into account possible mineral transformations), the apparatus of chemical reactions, which is presented in a number of commercial hydrodynamic simulators, is used. To track the microbial community (without differentiating it into different types of microorganisms), an additional component is introduced into «Bact» as one of the components of the water. All processes of growth and death of bacteria occur in the aqueous phase, but the presence of consumed resources leads to the fact that the main part of the reactions occurs in the contact zone of the injected fluid with water (formation or residual). The resulting model reproduces a typical cycle of the «kinetics» of the bacterial population in laboratory experiments and its relationship with changes in the concentration of components in the aqueous phase. Adjustment is carried out due to stoichiometric and kinetic coefficients in the so-called «reactions» describing the change in the bacterial population. The approach was tested on synthetic hydrodynamic models demonstrating the features of the joint manifestation of microbiological and hydrogeochemical processes during the creation of an underground hydrogen storage facility.

Experimental and theoretical study on high hydrogen storage performance of Mg(NH2)2-2LiH composite system driven by nano CeO2 oxygen vacancies

Experimental and theoretical study on high hydrogen storage performance of Mg(NH2)2-2LiH composite system driven by nano CeO2 oxygen vacancies

Application of Soft Computing Represented by Regression Machine Learning Model and Artificial Lemming Algorithm in Predictions for Hydrogen Storage in Metal-Organic Frameworks.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have been extensively studied for hydrogen storage due to their unique properties. This paper aims to develop several regression-based machine learning models to predict the hydrogen storage capacity of MOFs, including artificial neuron network (ANN), support vector regression (SVR), random forest (RF), extreme learning machine (ELM), kernel extreme learning machine (KELM), and generalized regression neural network (GRNN). An improved population-based metaheuristic optimization algorithm, the artificial lemming algorithm (ALA), is employed to select the hyperparameters of these machine learning models, enhancing their performance. All developed models are trained and tested using experimental data from multiple studies. The performance of the models is evaluated using various statistical metrics, complemented by regression plots, error analysis, and Taylor graphs to further identify the most effective predictive model. The results show that the ALA-RF model obtains the best performance in predicting hydrogen storage, with optimal values of coefficient of determination (R2), root mean square error (RMSE), Willmott's index (WI), and weighted average percentage error (WAPE) in both training and testing phases (0.9845 and 0.9840, 0.2719 and 0.2828, 0.9961 and 0.9959, and 0.0667 and 0.0714, respectively). Additionally, pressure is identified as the most significant feature for predicting hydrogen storage in MOFs. These findings provide an intelligent solution for the selection of MOFs and optimization of operational conditions in hydrogen storage processes.

Polyamide 6 as a Liner Material for Type IV Hydrogen Storage Cylinders: Performance Challenges and Modification Strategies

Type IV hydrogen storage cylinders are pivotal for high-pressure hydrogen storage and transportation, offering advantages such as lightweight design, high hydrogen storage density, and cost efficiency. Polyamide 6 (PA6) has emerged as a promising liner material due to its excellent mechanical strength, chemical resistance, and gas barrier properties. However, challenges remain, including high hydrogen permeability and insufficient mechanical performance under extreme temperature and pressure conditions. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in modification strategies to enhance PA6’s suitability for Type IV hydrogen storage cylinders. Incorporating nanofillers (e.g., graphene, montmorillonite, and carbon nanotubes) significantly reduces hydrogen permeability. In situ polymerization and polymer blending techniques improve toughness and interfacial adhesion (e.g., ternary blends achieve a special increase in impact strength). Multiscale structural design (e.g., biaxial stretching) and process optimization further enhance PA6’s overall performance. Future research should focus on interdisciplinary innovation, standardized testing protocols, and industry–academia collaboration to accelerate the commercialization of PA6-based composites for hydrogen storage applications. This review provides theoretical insights and engineering guidelines for developing high-performance liner materials.

Exploring the hydrogen storage capacity, dehydrogenated mechanism, electronic and optical properties of AMMgH3 hydrides for hydrogen storage

Exploring the hydrogen storage capacity, dehydrogenated mechanism, electronic and optical properties of AMMgH3 hydrides for hydrogen storage