Abstract Penetrating the everyday and mundane, social media has become an important political battleground for hybrid warfare and far-right claims. In this visual analysis of the Special Operations Unit of Rio de Janeiro's Military Police Instagram feed, we examine how Rio's favelas are aesthetically produced as warzones, and their inhabitants as enemies to be eliminated and transformed. We argue that the images shared draw on a repertoire of right-wing moralism and cosmology as well as a vernacular influenced by social media logics of engagement that contribute to the algorithmic militarization of everything, everywhere.

Abstract This article examines the strategic implications of conceptual inflation in the evolving discourse of hybrid warfare, with particular focus on its consequences for critical infrastructure protection. Drawing a parallel with the post-9/11 securitisation of terrorism, it argues that the increasingly elastic use of the term “hybrid threat” has created a condition of perpetual preparedness that paradoxically undermines operational readiness. As diverse threat phenomena, from cyber intrusions and disinformation to sabotage and proxy violence, are collapsed under a single hybrid rubric, crisis planning becomes generalised and detached from actor-specific threat logic. Through a comparative analysis of Norway and Taiwan, two advanced but geopolitically exposed democracies, the article demonstrates how national security systems, though resilient, remain conceptually unprepared for deniable, adaptive threats posed by state-backed terrorist proxies. Both countries possess sophisticated infrastructure protection frameworks; yet both continue to treat disruption as accidental or technical, rather than as strategically curated. Drawing on contemporary scholarship, fieldwork, and recent incidents, the article makes the case for a reconceptualisation of infrastructure as a strategic domain vulnerable to intelligent exploitation. It calls for a shift from resilience-based preparedness to anticipatory governance, underpinned by attacker modelling, red-teaming, and clearer typological distinctions. In doing so, it contributes to the growing debate on how to move beyond the rhetoric of hybrid warfare and towards a more operationally grounded framework for future security governance.

The article is devoted to the criminal law qualification of offences related to the use of electronic computing machines, computer systems, networks, and telecommunication means. It provides a comprehensive analysis of the provisions of Chapter XVI of the Criminal Code of Ukraine, which establishes criminal liability for offences committed in the field of using electronic computing machines (computers), systems, computer networks, and telecommunication networks – in particular, Articles 361, 361¹, 361², 362, 363, and 363¹ of the Criminal Code of Ukraine – taking into account the practice of their application under martial law. The article examines the elements of the aforementioned criminal offences, defining their object, subject, objective and subjective aspects, as well as specific features of qualification. Particular attention is paid to the mechanisms of unlawful interference with computer systems, the creation and dissemination of malicious software, the unauthorized distribution of information with restricted access, and violations of network operation rules. It is established that these criminal offences are increasingly used by the aggressor state as instruments of hybrid warfare, for the preparation or concealment of more serious crimes against the foundations of national security – including state treason, espionage, sabotage, collaboration activities, financing of terrorism, war propaganda, and encroachment on the territorial integrity of Ukraine. The study reveals a growing trend in the use of cyber tools in hybrid wars, which necessitates updating the legal framework and approaches to criminal law response. The article highlights current challenges in combating crimes involving the use of electronic computing machines, computer systems, networks, and telecommunication infrastructures. These include the imperfection of investigation methods, difficulties in identifying offenders, insufficient international cooperation, and the rapid adaptation of criminals to new control mechanisms. The research concludes that the existing provisions of the Criminal Code of Ukraine ensure only a basic level of criminal law protection of cyberspace. Given the growing number of cyber threats during the armed aggression of the Russian Federation, the author emphasizes the need to improve the legal terminology, harmonize Ukrainian legislation with European standards, refine qualification criteria, and strengthen criminal liability for the use of advanced technologies in criminal activities. The article substantiates the importance of developing mechanisms for the recording and verification of digital evidence, enhancing cooperation between investigative bodies, cybersecurity units of law enforcement agencies, and the Armed Forces of Ukraine within a unified concept of the state’s cyber defence. The integration of OSINT methods into criminal law activities is emphasized as a key element for improving the detection, documentation, and prevention of cybercrimes.

The study is devoted to a comprehensive analysis of the legal regulation of the digital economy in Ukraine and the development of mechanisms for regulatory and legal support of its safe and ethical development. The work examines the main phenomena of the digital economy, including smart contracts, Internet of Things systems, artificial intelligence, big data and cloud computing, from the perspective of their impact on traditional economic legal relations. It has been established that the digitalization of the economy is a complex process that goes far beyond simple technological modernization. It has been revealed that the differentiation of the levels of digital maturity of Ukrainian enterprises (digitization, automation, digitalization, digital transformation) leads to the emergence of specific legal problems at each stage, which requires adequate and multi-level regulatory regulation. The ambivalent nature of the implementation of digital technologies is analyzed: on the one hand, they allow business entities to optimize their activities, reduce operating costs, adapt to difficult conditions and increase competitiveness; on the other hand, they create serious threats to citizens’ privacy, information security and national sovereignty of the state. It is substantiated that the digitalization of the economy in the Ukrainian context cannot be considered solely as technological modernization, but is a strategic choice of state policy aimed at ensuring technological sovereignty and economic stability in the conditions of hybrid warfare and global competition. A set of proposals has been developed to improve the legal regulation of the digital economy, including: amending the Civil Code to establish smart contracts as an independent form of written agreement; developing universal standards for the Internet of Things and cloud computing; establishing clear mechanisms of legal liability for errors in the program code; introducing mechanisms for constant monitoring of new digital phenomena and adapting the legal system to the dynamic development of technologies.

The article reveals the essence, structure, and content of the basic concepts that define the preparation of future officers of the signal and cybersecurity forces for performing tasks in combat duty areas. Based on the analysis of the current challenges of hybrid warfare, the relevance of forming the professional readiness of the officer corps to act under conditions of informational threats, cyber incidents, and combat stress is substantiated. The author’s interpretations of the concepts “combat duty,” “information security,” “cyber resilience,” “functional readiness,” and “readiness to perform tasks in combat duty areas” are defined. The content of knowledge and skills that an officer must possess to effectively fulfill professional tasks is outlined. It is concluded that an officer’s readiness to perform combat tasks encompasses not only technical competence but also psychological resilience, analytical abilities, and the capability to act under uncertainty and high responsibility.Functional readiness is the core of professional competence, ensuring the ability to effectively perform official duties amid informational pressure, cyberattacks, and instability. The presented concepts can serve as a foundation for further development of a training model for officers assigned to combat duty and for improving educational programs.Readiness of future officers of the signal and cybersecurity forces to perform tasks in combat duty areas is an integrated personal quality formed through professional training, combining knowledge, skills, competencies, motivational and value orientations, and psychophysiological capacity to act effectively under conditions of constant combat readiness, ensuring the stability, controllability, and security of the information and communication infrastructure during special periods.

This article analyzes the Russian Federation's strategic weaponization of environmental policy in the Caspian Sea region as a sophisticated, non-kinetic instrument within its general hybrid warfare strategy. Avoiding the general assumption of environmental degradation as a byproduct of war, this analysis assumes that Russia is taking conscious measures in applying natural resources and environmental disasters as an heterogenous policy to accomplish political and economic objectives. By dominating the Caspian's principal water source, the Volga River, Moscow acquires the ability to inflict disproportionate, cumulative harm on the economies and legitimacy of governments of littoral states—specifically Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and Iran—without crossing the threshold of formal armed conflict. This piece outlines the mechanisms of this weaponization of the environment in physical and economic arguing that it is a central and expanding frontier of international competition, a key challenge to traditional understandings of national security.

Introduction: This article analyzes the application of international humanitarian law (IHL) in the Russia–Ukraine conflict, focusing on the impact of hybrid warfare on civilian protection mechanisms.Purposes of the Research: The purpose of this article is to evaluate the failure of civilian protection during the Russia–Ukraine conflict from legal, ethical, and strategic perspectives.Methods of the Research: This research uses a qualitative normative method, employing case study and literature review approaches, supported by interviews with legal practitioners to explore gaps between IHL norms and military operations.Results of the Research: The findings of this study show a critical disjunction between IHL provisions and military practices on the ground, leading to significant risks for non-combatants. The hybrid nature of the conflict complicates legal accountability and ethical compliance. This article offers a novel recommendation for reformulating combat strategies and updating military education curricula to better internalize IHL principles in contemporary armed conflicts.

The subject of the study is transformation of the concept of “crisis” in the context of the functioning of Ukrainian media during the full-scale war. The relevance of the research is determined by the need to bridge the theoretical gap between outdated concepts and the unique experience of Ukrainian media operating under hybrid warfare conditions. The purpose of the article is to develop and substantiate a comprehensive conceptual model that explains the transformation of crisis from a temporary event into a permanent operational environment. A key objective of the study is to provide theoretical justification for the concept of adaptive resilience as a new strategic paradigm for media organizations, replacing the traditional pursuit of restoring stability. The methodological framework of the study is based on a comparative analysis of classical theories of crisis communication (models by C. Hermann, T. Coombs, and I. Mitroff), a synthesis of recent academic works (2022–2025) dedicated to media functioning in conflict environments, as well as the application of structural-functional and conceptual-categorical approaches to redefine key terms. The research findings demonstrate that the notion of “crisis” in the media context has undergone an ontological transformation — evolving from a temporary event into a permanent, multidimensional environment of existence. This polycrisis is characterized by transformations in temporal, spatial, psychological, and functional dimensions. An extended typology of crisis threats has been developed, systematizing hybrid challenges. The scientific novelty lies in the formulation of the concept of adaptive resilience as a new strategic paradigm for media operating under conditions of permanent crisis. Its key indicators are defined as operational flexibility, financial diversification, and the psychological resilience of the team. The practical significance of the study consists in providing media managers with a conceptual framework for developing survival strategies, while offering state institutions and international donors a well-founded basis for designing effective media support policies aimed at strengthening the sector’s resilience. Prospects for further research include empirical verification of the proposed model through in-depth interviews with media managers and content analysis of editorial policies.

In the context of hybrid warfare, information aggression has evolved into a powerful instrument of state influence, enabling the achievement of political, military, and social objectives without the direct use of force. During the full-scale invasion of Ukraine by the russian federation, information pressure has reached an unprecedented scale, encompassing both the domestic and international information space. The primary goals of such actions include destabilizing Ukrainian society and government, undermining public trust in state institutions, discrediting the Armed Forces of Ukraine, spreading panic and uncertainty, and shaping a favorable narrative for the aggressor in the global media environment with wide audience reach. This article presents a comprehensive analysis of the key challenges impeding effective resistance to russian information aggression. The most critical issues identified include: the technological complexity of modern information attacks; the lack of consistent interagency coordination among state institutions; fragmented and inconsistent legal regulation in the field of information security; a low level of critical thinking and media literacy among the population; external control over global digital platforms, which limits the ability to respond promptly to threats; and the political vulnerability of information policy regulation processes. The paper examines the evolution of Russian information influence methods – from isolated cyberattacks to complex, multi-level information and psychological operations involving bot networks, social media platforms, proxy websites, and controlled media outlets. It also analyzes the main components of Ukraine’s regulatory framework in the field of information policy and security (the Criminal Code of Ukraine, the Laws “On Information” and “On Media”), as well as relevant international legal instruments, including European Union directives, Council of Europe recommendations, and OSCE documents. Based on this analysis, the study substantiates the need for a comprehensive approach to countering information aggression. The authors propose a set of practical measures, including the development of strategic communications, improvement of media literacy, implementation of content verification systems, strengthening of Ukraine’s digital sovereignty, and modernization of institutional information security infrastructure in response to emerging technological challenges and threats.

The de facto suspension of the Indus Water Treaty, 1960, announced by India on 22 April was one of the series of punitive measures adopted by India in response to the Pahalgam terror attack. Use of water as a weapon is a double-edged sword and it is, therefore, essential to consider the potential pitfalls of its employment so that suitable mitigation measures can planned well in advance. This paper attempts to examine the various technical and legal aspects of the treaty, as also, the diplomatic and strategic implications of India’s decision to hold the treaty in abeyance. The waters of the Indus River system are the main reason why Pakistan continues to consider Jammu & Kashmir as its jugular vein and is therefore likely to be extremely sensitive regarding any attempts to dilute the treaty. India, on the other hand, has reasonable grounds for seeking to de-facto suspend the treaty since it was negotiated in good faith, and Pakistan, by using terrorism as coercive instrument of forcing its will on the Kashmir issue, has shown anything but good faith. Moreover, India has valid grounds to ask for the treaty to be renegotiated as over time, our water requirements have grown and giving away nearly 80% of the waters of the Western Rivers is no longer considered prudent. India could use Article 62 of the Vienna Convention on Treaties,1969, which gives out rules and procedures for interpreting, amending or even terminating a treaty on grounds of fundamental change in circumstances. Keywords: Hybrid Warfare, Water Wars, Indus Water Treaty, Jammu & Kashmir, Op Sindoor, Indo-Pak Conflict, Vienna Convention on Treaties

The article explores the role of foreign language education as a strategic instrument of cultural security and resilience in conditions of hybrid warfare. It aims to determine how integrating linguistic and intercultural components into professional military education strengthens the ability to counter informational and cultural aggression. The study applies a combination of theoretical and empirical approaches, including analysis and systematization of Ukrainian and international research on cultural security, comparative analysis of educational practices, and abstraction, induction, and deduction to formulate conceptual and practical conclusions. The research establishes that foreign language learning, particularly through intercultural and practice-oriented methods such as role-playing games and simulations, enhances students’ critical thinking, media literacy, and intercultural competence. The experience of teaching Turkish in Ukrainian military institutions demonstrates that combining linguistic and cultural training improves officers’ readiness for communication and decision-making under hybrid conditions. The study substantiates the theoretical link between language acquisition and cultural security, expanding the understanding of language as both a communicative and strategic component of national resilience. The proposed methodology offers a framework for integrating intercultural modules into language curricula for military and higher education institutions, promoting adaptability and resilience under hybrid threats. The article provides an innovative conceptualization of foreign language learning as a tool of cultural defense, illustrating how linguistic education contributes to safeguarding national identity and resilience in the face of hybrid aggression.

This study examines the economic and geopolitical ramifications of the 2024 Israel-Iran escalation, demonstrating how even limited Middle Eastern confrontations can trigger disproportionate global disruptions. Using the crisis as a case study, it explores how hybrid warfare destabilises energy markets, strains diplomatic alignments, and exposes structural vulnerabilities in adjacent regions. The analysis highlights South Asia and East Africa, heavily reliant on Persian Gulf energy and remittances, where rising shipping costs have fuelled inflation, widened trade deficits, and undermined consumer confidence. In the Gulf, home to 20 million South Asian workers, minor escalations have jeopardised labour markets, remittance flows, and investment confidence. Within MENA, Lebanon faces deepening economic collapse, Israel confronts fiscal overextension, and Gulf states recalibrate diplomacy under rising threats. The paper argues that regional conflicts in energy corridors generate global consequences, highlighting the urgency of proactive multilateral strategies in de-escalation, maritime security, and financial resilience to mitigate cascading instability.

This article presents a method for detecting disinformation in news texts based on a combination of classic machine learning algorithms and deep learning models. The proposed approach was tested on the corpus of Ukrainian- and English-language news with the "fake/truth" classes marked. Before modelling, detailed data pre-processing was performed: deletion of duplicates, cleaning of HTML tags, links and special characters, normalisation of texts, unification of labels, class balancing, and tokenisation. A hybrid approach was used for vectorisation: frequency features (TF-IDF) were combined with contextual vector representations based on the IBM Granite multilingual model. Logistic regression is chosen as a classifier, which allows a balance to be achieved between quality and interpretation of results. Standard metrics are used to assess performance, such as Accuracy, Precision, Recall, F1-score, and ROC-AUC. According to the results of experiments, the model showed an Accuracy in the range of 0.91–0.93, a Precision of 0.89, a Recall of 0.92, an F1-score of 0.90, as well as an ROC-AUC over 0.94. The obtained values demonstrate the balanced ability of the system not only to accurately classify news, but also to minimise false positives, which is especially important in the conditions of information warfare. Priority is given to Recall's high scores, as the omission of fake messages can have critical consequences for information security. Thus, the proposed approach makes a scientific contribution to the field of automated disinformation detection by combining transparent and reproducible data processing with a hybrid text representation. The uniqueness of the study lies in the adaptation of NLP and machine learning methods to the Ukrainian-language information space and the context of modern hybrid warfare, which allows you to effectively identify the sources and routes of spreading fake news.

In the context of a rapidly changing and volatile global security landscape, hybrid warfare has emerged as a new form of conflict, combining traditional military means with non-military tools such as cyberattacks, trade warfare, environmental warfare, and many other forms. Hybrid warfare, while recently a frequent topic in international political science and military science, is not a legal term. Therefore, it is impossible to apply conventional methods of definition and international legal norms to address activities in the form of this type of warfare. This term poses many challenges from the perspective of international law and the national laws of states in fields such as human rights law, the law of armed conflict, information security law, and international trade law. This article analyzes the concept and characteristics of hybrid warfare and examines some typical cases to highlight the challenges that it is posing to the international legal system. The article emphasizes the current legal gaps and proposes directions for the future development of international law and the strengthening of international oversight mechanisms.

This paper explores the tactical employment of the Anti-Tank Guided Missile (ATGM) platoon in defensive operations, focusing on its effectiveness against armoured and mechanized threats in both conventional and hybrid warfare environments. Drawing on doctrinal frameworks such as FM 3-21.91, FM 71-1, and MCRP 3-30.7, the research evaluates key aspects including terrain-based siting, force distribution, survivability through mobility and camouflage, and synchronization with indirect fire and reconnaissance assets. Through simulated defensive scenarios, the study demonstrates that ATGM units deployed in decentralized, terrain-masked positions with overlapping fields of fire and ISR integration significantly improve engagement success and reduce vulnerability to counterattack. The findings suggest doctrinal and organizational refinements, such as the incorporation of hunter-killer tactics and loitering munitions at the platoon level, to meet the demands of multi-domain operations and support Force Design 2030 concepts. The paper concludes with practical recommendations for training, force structure adaptation, and integrated fires coordination.

ABSTRACT Background. The study explores the key role of the media in the implementation of transitional justice mechanisms, using the example of two different but comparable countries—Ukraine and Taiwan. Both countries have undergone large-scale political transformations: Taiwan from authoritarian control by the Kuomintang party to democratic governance, and Ukraine as a post-Soviet state in a state of armed conflict and simultaneously rethinking its totalitarian past. In both contexts, the media act not only as a channel of information but also as a tool for influencing public opinion, shaping national memory, legitimizing legal processes, and ensuring open dialogue. The objective of this study is to identify similarities and differences in the functioning of the media in transitional justice processes in Ukraine and Taiwan, as well as to determine how they contribute to the achievement of its main objectives: establishing the truth, providing reparations, bringing the perpetrators to justice, and promoting reconciliation. Methods. The methodology of this study is based on an interdisciplinary approach that includes comparative legal analysis of normative acts, content analysis of media publications, a review of scientific literature, and doctrinal studies of the role of the media in legal discourse. The empirical basis consists of official documents, court practice, media materials, and public statements by representatives of transitional justice institutions in each country. Results and conclusions. This study highlights the dual nature of the media: on the one hand, they can support processes of reconciliation and public reappraisal of the past; on the other hand, they can become a source of polarization through political bias or the spread of disinformation. In Taiwan, the media actively covered the activities of the Transitional Justice Commission, promoted the memory of the repressed, and created space for public discussion. In Ukraine, the media operates in the context of ongoing war, focusing on documenting war crimes, exposing disinformation, and mobilizing national resistance. The study's conclusions emphasize that successful transitional justice is impossible without the participation of independent and professional media. Taiwan's experience can be useful for Ukraine in terms of memorialization, archiving crimes, public apologies, and supporting victims' rights. At the same time, Ukraine's practice of countering hybrid warfare, especially in the field of information security, is valuable for Taiwan and other states experiencing pressure from authoritarian regimes.

ABSTRACT Since the illegal Russian annexation of Crimea and the proxy war in the Donbas, the term hybrid warfare has gained significant traction. It has been used to describe Moscow’s asymmetric actions (as well as those of other state and non-state actors) and refers to the ability to combine military tools (both regular and irregular) with non-military and non-conventional instruments (diplomatic, political, economic, informational). Yet, by examining the history of Russian strategic thought and observing how Russia has conducted the conflicts in which it has been involved, one can discern a marked inclination toward the use of so-called hybrid tools that can be traced back at least to the time of Peter the Great. This demonstrates a certain rootedness of the idea that it is possible to exploit means and methods not strictly belonging to the military sphere – an approach that was also present during the Soviet era, despite the dogmatic refusal to broaden the concept of war to include non-military instruments. The major debate on the wars of the future that marked the two decades following the dissolution of the USSR allowed the Kremlin to develop such tools even more effectively.

The article analyses disinformation as a key tool of hybrid warfare in the current deteriorating security situation and an environment marked by strategic uncertainty and instability, where the confrontation between democratic and authoritarian regimes is intensifying. In this context, disinformation has ceased to be merely a marginal phenomenon; instead, it has become a systematic tool for undermining democratic institutions, polarizing society, and eroding public trust. In this context, the European Union faces a growing need to safeguard the information space through coordinated measures at both domestic and international levels. The article draws on qualitative and comparative analyses of political strategies and documents, identifying the main weaknesses of current approaches and proposes strategic priorities, including the establishment of a legally binding framework, the strengthening of media literacy, the enhancement of technological capacities, and the promotion of global norm-setting. The article concludes by emphasizing that a successful response to disinformation requires not only technical solutions but, more importantly, educated, resilient, and critically minded citizens as the cornerstone of democratic society.

ABSTRACT Amid interlocking crises, Europe's security and political resilience increasingly hinges on effective responses to sophisticated information threats. This article provides a pioneering institutional assessment of the NATO/EU framework, addressing the Information Element of Hybrid Warfare (IEHW), complemented by a first academic exploration of the clandestine Czech Elves – highly skilled expert volunteers combating disinformation. Drawing on twelve unique, in-depth semi-structured interviews with Elves and further professional testimonies, it demonstrates how voluntary expert groups enhance and complement existing NATO/EU structures, amplifying synergies between modern foundational institutions (NATO, EU) and late-modern hybrid or interstitial bodies (CoEs, EEAS). Theoretically, the study introduces “Circulatory Institutionalism”, a novel organisational model characterised by rotating collaboration and shared expertise between formal agencies and volunteer communities, inducing greater institutional legitimacy, agility, and inclusive strategic capacity. Far from niche or strictly local, the Elves exemplify the broader potential of expert volunteerism to refine institutional and policy design, strengthening ties between governing entities and communities. Mainstreaming these insights enables academics and policymakers to revitalise conceptual and strategic reflection, reinforce public trust in democratic institutions, counteract internal hollowing out of these institutions and facilitate greater whole-of-society integration – particularly critical during major disruptions such as sabotage or attacks – in Europe’s evolving security landscape.

Within forty years, the gaming industry has developed to become a highly influential economic activity. As the graphics and the immersion in the video game world develop fast, the virtual world has acquired the capacity to direct and guide the behaviour of users. Particularly, violent video games have been associated with political opposition and social turmoil. The paper uses a systematic review approach to investigate the possibility of video games as a tool of hybrid warfare. The evidence suggests that video games are among the most persuasive forms of interactive media, capable of provoking aggressive behaviour and influencing perceptions, making them a potential tool in hybrid war strategies. Although unconventional warfare is somewhat of a trend in the history of warfare, modern technology has come in with contemporary ways of executing war without necessarily changing the nature of war. This evolution is reflected in combat-based games, which are enriched with realistic graphics and virtual experiences. On the whole, the paper explains that the opportunities of video games as instruments in hybrid warfare are more effective.