Humans In Europe Research Articles

Lyme and associated tick-borne diseases: global challenges in the context of a public health threat.

Lyme disease, caused by Borrelia burgdorferi and transmitted by ticks, was initially considered a recent, rare and regional occurrence. We now have evidence that very similar bacteria infected humans in Europe during the ice age (Keller et al., 2012). Evidence-based data are scarce therefore many aspects of the disease remain controversial (Auwaerter et al., 2011; Lee and Vielmeyer, 2011; Perronne, 2012), but in 2013 the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) revised their annual estimates from 30,000 cases to 300,000 cases in the USA alone. Having dramatically increased their numbers, the CDC are now calling Lyme disease “a tremendous public health problem in the United States” (CDC, 2011). The lack of a gold standard for diagnosis makes producing accurate statistics difficult. Some pathogenic strains belonging to the B. burgdorferi sensu lato complex have a worldwide distribution, yet they are rarely considered or tested for (Varela et al., 2004; Lopes de Carvalho et al., 2009; Rudenko et al., 2009; Stanek and Reiter, 2011; Branda and Rosenberg, 2013; Clark et al., 2013; Lee et al., 2014; Margos et al., 2014). Borrelia miyamotoi, for instance, phylogenetically close to relapsing fever borreliae, is now recognized as a cause of Lyme-like disease and relapsing fever in Asia, Europe and North America. It usually does not cross react with B. burgdorferi tests (Branda and Rosenberg, 2013; Lee et al., 2014). A novel isolate of Borrelia has been isolated by PCR in a post-treatment serum from a patient with neurologic Lyme disease (Lee et al., 2014). These recent historical, geographical and microbial data should prompt the medical community to realize that cases of persisting post tick-bite syndromes are probably due to multiple pathogens and that these occult infections will require a new approach if not an actual paradigm shift.

Characterisation of Streptococcus suis isolates from wild boars (Sus scrofa)

Wild boar are widely distributed throughout the Iberian Peninsula and can carry potentially virulent strains of Streptococcus suis. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of S. suis in wild boars from two large geographical regions of Spain. Serotypes 1, 2, 7 and 9 identified were further genetically characterised by virulence-associated genotyping, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and multilocus sequence typing (MLST) to determine the population structure of S. suis carried by these animals. Streptococcus suis was isolated from 39.1% of the wild boars examined: serotype 9 was the most frequently isolated (12.5%), followed by serotype 1 (2.5%). Serotype 2 was rarely isolated (0.3%). Eighteen additional serotypes were identified indicating wide diversity of this pathogen within the wild boar population. This heterogeneity was confirmed by PFGE and MLST analyses and the majority of isolates exhibited the virulence-associated genotype mrp-/epf-/sly-. The results of this study highlight that the carriage of S. suis by wild boars is commonplace. However, MLST data indicate that these isolates are not related to prevalent clonal complexes ST1, ST16, ST61 and ST87 typically associated with infection of pigs or humans in Europe.

Multilocus sequence typing analysis and antibiotic resistance of Clostridium difficile strains isolated from retail meat and humans in Belgium

Clostridium difficile has been isolated from food animals and meat, specially ground pork and ground beef. The recovered isolates were closely related to C. difficile human strains, indicating that animals and food are possible transmission routes of human C. difficile infection. The main objective of this study was to characterize C. difficile isolates from retail meat and to compare with human isolates recovered from hospital patients in Belgium. Raw meat (beef and pork) was obtained from the retail trade. C. difficile was recovered from 2.3% of the beef samples and from 4.7% of the pork samples. A total of 4 different PCR-ribotypes were identified with a large percentage of types 078 and 014. Resistance to moxifloxacin and erythromycin was detected. The multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) analysis showed that meat and human isolates cluster in the same lineage. This study reveals the presence of toxigenic C. difficile in retail meat in Belgium with predominance PCR-ribotypes 078 and 014, which are among the four most prevalent ribotypes of C. difficile isolated from humans in Europe.

First Report of Emerging Zoonotic Pathogen Wohlfahrtiimonas chitiniclastica in the United States

Wohlfahrtiimonas chitiniclastica is an emerging human pathogen that has been identified as the cause of septicemia in humans in Europe and South America. Here we report the first case of a unique disease manifestation of Wohlfahrtiimonas chitiniclastica-induced bacterial septicemia secondary to wound myiasis in a deer in Michigan in the United States.

Evidence for a 15N positive excursion in terrestrial foodwebs at the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition in south-western France: Implications for early modern human palaeodiet and palaeoenvironment

The Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition around 35,000 years ago coincides with the replacement of Neanderthals by anatomically modern humans in Europe. Several hypotheses have been suggested to explain this replacement, one of them being the ability of anatomically modern humans to broaden their dietary spectrum beyond the large ungulate prey that Neanderthals consumed exclusively. This scenario is notably based on higher nitrogen-15 amounts in early Upper Palaeolithic anatomically modern human bone collagen compared with late Neanderthals. In this paper, we document a clear increase of nitrogen-15 in bone collagen of terrestrial herbivores during the early Aurignacian associated with anatomically modern humans compared with the stratigraphically older Châtelperronian and late Mousterian fauna associated with Neanderthals. Carnivores such as wolves also exhibit a significant increase in nitrogen-15, which is similar to that documented for early anatomically modern humans compared with Neanderthals in Europe. A shift in nitrogen-15 at the base of the terrestrial foodweb is responsible for such a pattern, with a preserved foodweb structure before and after the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition in south-western France. Such an isotopic shift in the terrestrial ecosystem may be due to an increase in aridity during the time of deposition of the early Aurignacian layers. If it occurred across Europe, such a shift in nitrogen-15 in terrestrial foodwebs would be enough to explain the observed isotopic trend between late Neanderthals and early anatomically modern humans, without any significant change in the diet composition at the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition.

Livestock-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus ST9 in Pigs and Related Personnel in Taiwan

BackgroundA livestock-associated (LA) methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strain sequence type 398 (ST398) is found related to animals and humans in Europe and North America. To evaluate the nasal carriage of MRSA among pigs and related workers in Taiwan, we conducted this study.MethodsFrom June 25 to October 1 2012, a total of 641 and 100 nasal swabs were obtained from pigs and related workers, respectively, from 22 pig farms nationwide and 2 pig auction markets in Taiwan. All MRSA isolates were molecularly characterized.ResultsOverall, the nasal carriage rate of MRSA was 14.4% for pigs and 13% for humans. The carriage rate for pigs younger than 3 months was significantly higher than those older than 3 months (25.4% vs. 5.8%, p<.001). Percentage of MRSA-positive pig farms was 59.1% (13/22). The carriage rate for pigs in large-scale herds (≥10000 pigs) was significantly higher than that in small-scale (34.3% vs. 7.0%, p<.001) and that in auction markets (3.8%). The carriage rate was 19.2% (10/52) for pig farm workers, and the rate in large-scale farms was significantly higher than that in small-scale (36.8% vs. 9.1%, p = .014). Except for 3 isolates from humans, the other 99 isolates belonged to sequence type (ST) 9. 83 of 89 isolates from pigs shared a common pulsotype, which was also shared by 6 isolates from humans.ConclusionMore than 10% of pigs and related workers in Taiwan carried LA-MRSA ST9 in nares and cross-species transmission of LA-MRSA was documented by molecular methods.

Using the genetics of Echinococcus multilocularis to trace the history of expansion from an endemic area

Alveolar echinococcosis, caused by the cestode Echinococcus multilocularis, is the most serious parasitic disease for humans in Europe, with a sylvatic life cycle generally between small rodents and red foxes. General expansion of the range of E. multilocularis has been observed across Europe over the last 15years. In France, a westward spread of the known endemic areas of the parasite was described recently. For genotyping, the microsatellite EmsB was used to trace expansion in five French areas. A total of 22 EmsB profiles were identified, with five similar to those previously described in other parts of Europe. An imbalance of genetic diversity was observed between the five areas which also revealed their interconnection with the presence of common profiles, notably the two main profiles both present in all regions except one in the North. These two findings are similar to those described at the European level, highlighting transmission of the parasite by a mainland–island system. A spatio-temporal scenario of the expansion of E. multilocularis can be proposed with spread from the French historical focus in eastern France to the Lorraine, the Champagne-Ardenne and finally the North, while simultaneously another expansion has occurred from the historical focus into the West. The colonization by the parasite into the West and North areas from the historical focus was probably due to the migration of foxes several decades ago. Recent detection of the parasite in new endemic “départements” may be due to more active research rather than a recent spread of the parasite. Regarding the numerous data obtained by the different EmsB analyses, principally across Europe, centralization of all the profiles described in a public databank appears necessary in order to obtain a precise understanding of transmission of the parasite from one country to another.

A two year study of verified spider bites in Switzerland and a review of the European spider bite literature

During a two-year study, all spider bites recorded by Swiss primary care physicians were reported to the Swiss Toxicological Information Centre and all collected spiders were identified. A total of 14 verified spider bites were recorded, involving five species from four families: Zoropsis spinimana (five cases), Cheiracanthium punctorium (four cases), Tegenaria atrica (three cases) and one case of Malthonica ferruginea (= Tegenaria ferruginea) (both Agelenidae), and one case of Amaurobius ferox (Amaurobiidae). The bites of all spider species produced relatively mild symptoms. Local symptoms such as moderate to severe pain, circumscribed swelling and redness were the only effects in most cases. Systemic symptoms were rare. There was complete recovery in all cases and all lesions healed completely without further damage or secondary disorders. Following a review of the European spider bite literature, the number of spider species capable of biting humans in Europe is considered to be much larger than could be concluded from this study. Most spider bites are restricted to species living synanthropically, thus promoted by climate and habitat change. The annual frequency of spider bites in Switzerland is estimated at 10–100 bites per million inhabitants, but this is predicted to increase due to the continuous arrival of new alien species, many of which have a high potential to establish in urban areas.

An ochered fossil marine shell from the mousterian of fumane cave, Italy.

A scanty but varied ensemble of finds challenges the idea that Neandertal material culture was essentially static and did not include symbolic items. In this study we report on a fragmentary Miocene-Pliocene fossil marine shell, Aspa marginata , discovered in a Discoid Mousterian layer of the Fumane Cave, northern Italy, dated to at least 47.6-45.0 Cal ky BP. The shell was collected by Neandertals at a fossil exposure probably located more than 100 kms from the site. Microscopic analysis of the shell surface identifies clusters of striations on the inner lip. A dark red substance, trapped inside micropits produced by bioeroders, is interpreted as pigment that was homogeneously smeared on the outer shell surface. Dispersive X-ray and Raman analysis identify the pigment as pure hematite. Of the four hypotheses we considered to explain the presence of this object at the site, two (tool, pigment container) are discarded because in contradiction with observations. Although the other two (“manuport”, personal ornament) are both possible, we favor the hypothesis that the object was modified and suspended by a ‘thread’ for visual display as a pendant. Together with contextual and chronometric data, our results support the hypothesis that deliberate transport and coloring of an exotic object, and perhaps its use as pendant, was a component of Neandertal symbolic culture, well before the earliest appearance of the anatomically modern humans in Europe.

Genetic analysis of Streptococcus suis isolates from wild rabbits

This work aims to investigate the presence of Streptococcus suis in wild rabbits. A total of 65 S. suis isolates were recovered from 33.3% of the wild rabbits examined. Most isolates (86.2%) belong to genotype cps9. These isolates were further characterized by pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and virulence genotyping. Overall, S. suis exhibited a low genetic diversity. Only 5 genetic profiles were obtained by PFGE and most isolates (71.4%) were included in two pulsotypes that were also widely distributed among the wild rabbit population. MLST analysis assigned all cps9 isolates into three new singlestones (ST216, ST217 and ST284), which were not genetically related to the European ST87 and Spanish ST61 widespread swine clones, indicating a different genetic background for the S. suis isolates from wild rabbits and pigs. Wild rabbit isolates exhibited the genotype mrp-/epf-/sly-, different from those showed by most of the swine S. suis isolates of the ST87 and ST61 clones. None of the S. suis isolated from wild rabbits exhibited the genotype cps2/mrp+/epf+/sly+ associated with human infections. These results indicate that S. suis isolates from wild rabbits are not genetically related with prevalent clones usually associated with infections in pigs or humans in Europe and do not exhibit either their virulence genotypes. Therefore, although wild rabbits could represent an unknown reservoir of this pathogen, they could not represent a potential risk for pigs or humans.

Severe Seoul hantavirus infection in a pregnant woman, France, October 2012

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Vector-borne helminths of dogs and humans – focus on central and eastern parts of Europe

Comments on the article “Vector-borne helminths of dogs and humans in Europe” published in Parasites and Vectors 2013, 6:16.

Vector-borne helminths of dogs and humans in Europe

Presently, 45% of the total human population of Europe, as well as their domestic and companion animals, are exposed to the risk of vector-borne helminths (VBH) causing diseases. A plethora of intrinsic biological and extrinsic factors affect the relationship among helminths, vectors and animal hosts, in a constantly changing environment. Although canine dirofilarioses by Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens are key examples of the success of VBH spreading into non-endemic areas, another example is represented by Thelazia callipaeda eyeworm, an emergent pathogen of dogs, cats and humans in several regions of Europe. The recent finding of Onchocerca lupi causing canine and human infestation in Europe and overseas renders the picture of VBH even more complicated. Similarly, tick-transmitted filarioids of the genus Cercopithifilaria infesting the skin of dogs were recently shown to be widespread in Europe. Although for most of the VBH above there is an increasing accumulation of research data on their distribution at national level, the overall impact of the diseases they cause in dogs and humans is not fully recognised in many aspects. This review investigates the reasons underlying the increasing trend in distribution of VBH in Europe and discusses the diagnostic and control strategies currently available. In addition, this article provides the authors’ opinion on some topics related to VBH that would deserve further scientific investigation.

Biocultural Refugia: Combating the Erosion of Diversity in Landscapes of Food Production

There is urgent need to both reduce the rate of biodiversity loss caused by industrialized agriculture and feed morepeople. The aim of this paper is to highlight the role of places that harbor traditional ecological knowledge, artifacts, and methodswhen preserving biodiversity and ecosystem services in landscapes of food production. We use three examples in Europe ofbiocultural refugia, defined as the physical places that not only shelter farm biodiversity, but also carry knowledge and experiencesabout practical management of how to produce food while stewarding biodiversity and ecosystem services. Memory carriersinclude genotypes, landscape features, oral, and artistic traditions and self-organized systems of rules, and as such reflect adiverse portfolio of practices on how to deal with unpredictable change. We find that the rich biodiversity of many regionallydistinct cultural landscapes has been maintained through different smallholder practices developed in relation to localenvironmental fluctuations and carried within biocultural refugia for as long as millennia. Places that transmit traditionalecological knowledge and practices hold important lessons for policy makers since they may provide genetic and culturalreservoirs — refugia — for the wide array of species that have co-evolved with humans in Europe for more than 6000 thousandyrs. Biodiversity restoration projects in domesticated landscapes can employ the biophysical elements and cultural practicesembedded in biocultural refugia to create locally adapted small-scale mosaics of habitats that allow species to flourish and adaptto change. We conclude that such insights must be included in discussions of land-sparing vs. land-sharing when producingmore food while combating loss of biodiversity. We found the latter strategy rational in domesticated landscapes with a longhistory of agriculture

The Middle to Upper Paleolithic Sequence of Buran-Kaya III (Crimea, Ukraine): New Stratigraphic, Paleoenvironmental, and Chronological Results

Buran-Kaya III is a rockshelter located in Crimea (Ukraine). It provides an exceptional stratigraphic sequence extending from the Middle Paleolithic to the Neolithic. Nine Paleolithic layers have been attributed to the Streletskaya or eastern Szeletian, Micoquian, Aurignacian, Gravettian, and Swiderian cultural traditions. Human remains from the richest Gravettian layer (6-1) are radiocarbon dated to 31.9 ka BP, and therefore represent, with Peştera cu Oase (Romania), one of the oldest anatomically modern humans in Europe. The aim of this study is to obtain a controlled stratigraphic sequence of Buran-Kaya III with new 14C dates from faunal and human bones, in their paleoenvironmental context. During our new excavations (2009–2011), sediments, bones, and teeth from the stratigraphical layers were sampled for sedimentological, geochemical, and 14C analyses. Fossil bones from the 2001 excavations were also analyzed. Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) 14C dating, including cross-dating, was performed at Groningen, Saclay/Gif-sur-Yvette, and Oxford. Biogeochemical analysis was used to test the integrity of the bone collagen. Dates were modeled using a Bayesian approach. The sedimentological, paleoenvironmental, and chronological data are mutually consistent and show that the Paleolithic human occupations at Buran-Kaya III range from the end of MIS 3 to early MIS 1. These results provide a new chronological and paleoenvironmental framework for the human settlements in eastern Europe during the late Middle and the Upper Paleolithic.

First Report of Neotrombicula autumnalis Infestation in a Cat and a Dog from Corfu (Greece) and in a Cat from Limassol (Cyprus)

Neotrombicula autumnalis is the most common species of the family Trombiculidae that parasitizes dogs, cats, and humans in Europe. Besides the skin lesions it may cause, this mite is a possible vector of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. Two cases of N. autumnalis infestation in a cat and a dog in the island of Corfu, Greece, and 1 case of infestation in a cat living in Limassol, Cyprus, are presented. To the best or our knowledge, these are the first cases of feline and canine trombiculosis reported in both countries, and their appearance in islands points out to the possibility of introduction through importation of infested dogs and cats. For this reason, parasiticides that are effective for both the treatment and prevention of trombiculosis should be recommended for all dogs and cats that live in areas where the parasite is present as well as for all traveling pets.

Intrapopulation variation in macro tooth wear patterns—a case study from Igloolik, Canada

The pattern of human tooth wear-the way it varies between teeth in the mouth-is crucial to our understanding of important questions in archeology and paleoanthropology, such as the contrasts in diet and behavior between Neanderthals and early modern humans in Europe and Asia, or with the adoption of agriculture in the Americas. Little is known, however, about the way in which wear patterns develop with increasing age or the way in which they differ between males and females. One explanation is that few living people show the high rates of tooth wear seen worldwide throughout the preindustrial archaeological record. The study described here investigates the macroscopic pattern of tooth wear in a unique group of known age and sex dental casts from living Canadian Inuit from Igloolik. The results show that the Igloolik people possessed a pattern of extremely heavy anterior tooth wear, relative to the first molar and the other posterior teeth, which is attributed to the use of the anterior teeth in cultural practices as well as the extreme and marginal environments in which they lived. Heavy anterior tooth wear was established at an early age and maintained throughout life; statistically significant differences were found between the wear patterns of males and females and are explained in terms of sexual division of labor within the community. This study highlights the need to understand both intra- and interpopulation variation in tooth wear patterns when interpreting patterns in past human groups.

Radiocarbon dates from the Grotte du Renne and Saint-Césaire support a Neandertal origin for the Châtelperronian

The transition from the Middle Paleolithic (MP) to Upper Paleolithic (UP) is marked by the replacement of late Neandertals by modern humans in Europe between 50,000 and 40,000 y ago. Châtelperronian (CP) artifact assemblages found in central France and northern Spain date to this time period. So far, it is the only such assemblage type that has yielded Neandertal remains directly associated with UP style artifacts. CP assemblages also include body ornaments, otherwise virtually unknown in the Neandertal world. However, it has been argued that instead of the CP being manufactured by Neandertals, site formation processes and layer admixture resulted in the chance association of Neanderthal remains, CP assemblages, and body ornaments. Here, we report a series of accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon dates on ultrafiltered bone collagen extracted from 40 well-preserved bone fragments from the late Mousterian, CP, and Protoaurignacian layers at the Grotte du Renne site (at Arcy-sur-Cure, France). Our radiocarbon results are inconsistent with the admixture hypothesis. Further, we report a direct date on the Neandertal CP skeleton from Saint-Césaire (France). This date corroborates the assignment of CP assemblages to the latest Neandertals of western Europe. Importantly, our results establish that the production of body ornaments in the CP postdates the arrival of modern humans in neighboring regions of Europe. This new behavior could therefore have been the result of cultural diffusion from modern to Neandertal groups.

Characterization of IncN plasmids carrying blaCTX-M-1 and qnr genes in Escherichia coli and Salmonella from animals, the environment and humans

The aim of the study was to characterize a collection of Escherichia coli and Salmonella harbouring qnr and bla(CTX-M-1) genes on IncN plasmids isolated from humans, food-producing, companion and wild animals, and the environment from six European countries. Nineteen IncN plasmids were compared using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), plasmid multilocus sequence typing (pMLST) and hybridization with repN, qnrS1, qnrB19 or bla(CTX-M-1) probes. Plasmids pKT58A and pHHA45 were sequenced using the 454-Genome Sequencer FLX platform on a library constructed from plasmid DNA purified from the respective E. coli transformants. Three types of IncN plasmids carrying bla(CTX-M-1), qnrS1 and qnrB19 genes were identified in strains isolated from the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, Denmark, Italy and the Netherlands, corresponding to pMLST sequence type (ST) 1, ST3 and ST8, respectively. Related plasmids circulating in human and animal isolates were identified. Complete nucleotide sequences of the ST1 pHHA45 plasmid carrying bla(CTX-M-1), isolated from E. coli from pigs in Denmark, and the ST3 pKT58A plasmid harbouring qnrS1, identified in E. coli from a water bird, were obtained. Our results demonstrated wide distribution of specific IncN plasmids disseminating bla(CTX-M-1) and qnr genes among animals and humans in Europe.

Seasonal dynamics of Ixodes ricinus on ground level and higher vegetation in a preserved wooded area in southern Europe

Ixodes ricinus is a major vector of pathogens affecting animals and humans in Europe. Despite its wide distribution, data on the ecology of I. ricinus in some areas is meager, which might impair the elaboration of reliable models to predict the risk of pathogen transmission in areas where this tick is currently present. Herein, we analyze some aspects of the ecology of I. ricinus in a wooded area of southern Italy. From March 2010 to March 2012, ticks were collected on a monthly basis by dragging and flagging in three different sites in a wooded area located in southern Italy, within the boundaries of the Gallipoli Cognato Forest, in the Basilicata region, southern Italy. Immature ticks were more abundant than adults (immature:adult ratio, 10.5:1). The abundance of larvae on the ground-level vegetation was generally higher than on higher vegetation (19.1 vs. 8.3 ticks per hour), whereas nymphs, males and females were more abundant on the higher vegetation (22.3 vs. 14.2, 2.9 vs. 0.8, 2.7 vs. 1.0 ticks per hour, respectively). Larvae were most abundant in summer (27.4 ticks per hour), whereas nymphs, females, and males peaked in seasons other than summer. This study underlines that I. ricinus is well adapted to southern Italian conditions, where it remains active during the whole year, displaying spatiotemporal distribution patterns that are different from central and north European populations. Remarkably, it points out that the life cycle of I. ricinus in southern Italy may be completed in approximately 1 year. Data generated will be valuable to elaborate better models to predict the distribution of this tick in Europe and to assess the risk of transmitted diseases, particularly Lyme borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis.