Human Trafficking Research Articles

The Urgency of Legal Protection for Indonesian Migrant Workers in Anticipation of Inter-Country Conflicts

Indonesian Migrant Workers (PMI) are Indonesian citizens who will, are or have done Work by Receiving Wages outside the Territory of Indonesia, this is regulated in Law Number 18 of 2017 concerning the Protection of Indonesian Migrant Workers and its derivative Regulations. Indonesian Migrant Workers are Indonesian citizens who are still under the authority of the Indonesian government, however the position of Indonesian Migrant Workers abroad is very vulnerable to facing unpleasant cases such as Violence, Human Trafficking, Illegal Migrant Workers and various other cases. These cases trigger conflicts between Indonesia and the recipient countries of Indonesian Migrant Workers, due to the relationship between 2 different citizenships. So it is important for the Government of the Republic of Indonesia to provide legal protection efforts and Preventive Actions to Indonesian Migrant Workers who will go Abroad, both in terms of administration, readiness and the purpose of Indonesian Migrant Workers. The method used is the Normative Juridical Method, and the purpose of this study is to analyze how the Urgency of Legal Protection for Indonesian Migrant Workers in Anticipating Conflicts Between Countries. The results of this study explain that the role of the government in making regulations or international agreements with countries where Indonesian migrant workers work is very important in order to protect Indonesian citizens and prevent conflicts between countries that can occur due to problems caused by Indonesian migrant workers.

Re-framing European Union (EU) - United Kingdom (UK) Cooperation to Address Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling

Since the UK’s departure from the EU, the two parties have established a Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA) to shape their post-Brexit trade relationship. However, no formal agreement has been reached to address people smuggling and human trafficking, despite the UK government's stated intention to collaborate with the EU in tackling these crimes. We argue that when such an agreement is negotiated, it should adopt a human rights-based approach, ensuring the effective identification and protection of actual and potential victims of human trafficking. Enhanced cooperation in integrated border management, such as the 2024 post-Brexit arrangement between the European Border and Coast Guard Agency (Frontex) and the UK, and bilateral agreements with France, has yet to sufficiently prioritise human rights. Like the EU’s other cooperation agreements with third states, any potential future bilateral agreement should also incorporate human rights clauses, in line with specific measures contained in the TCA. These legally binding clauses are designed to safeguard and strengthen the protection of fundamental rights. Addressing the complexity of human trafficking and migrant smuggling, along with the multifaceted governance systems they entail, requires balancing the UK’s national sovereignty with the EU’s legal personality and primacy over its Member States in the development of bilateral agreements rooted in human rights. This challenge requires cooperation and responsibility-sharing, rather than uncoordinated systems that states, and non-state actors can exploit..

Juridical Review of Human Trafficking as a Transnational Crime

Human trafficking across national borders represents a critical challenge to Indonesia's national security and human rights protection. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of international cooperation mechanisms in counter-trafficking efforts and analyze the strategic approaches implemented by Lemhannas RI (Indonesia's National Resilience Institute) and BNPP (National Border Management Agency) in combating transnational crime at Indonesia's borders. This research employs a descriptive-qualitative methodology through document analysis, policy review, and examination of legal frameworks, including the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW, ratified through Law No. 7/1984), Law No. 21/2007 on Human Trafficking Eradication, and the Palermo Protocol standards. The results reveal that while Indonesia has established a progressive legal framework, implementation faces challenges due to economic disparities, demographic pressures, and patriarchal norms. International cooperation mechanisms show limited effectiveness due to jurisdictional complexities and weak cross-border coordination. The strategic approaches by Lemhannas RI and BNPP require strengthened inter-agency collaboration and enhanced border control mechanisms, particularly in vulnerable maritime regions. The study concludes that effective human trafficking eradication demands an integrated approach combining robust law enforcement, enhanced international cooperation, and targeted socio-economic interventions. Recommendations include strengthening maritime border surveillance, developing comprehensive victim protection programs, and establishing more effective international cooperation mechanisms.

A Comprehensive Training Approach to Human Trafficking in a Medical School and Teaching Hospital Program

A Comprehensive Training Approach to Human Trafficking in a Medical School and Teaching Hospital Program

Conflict-driven human trafficking, internally displaced persons, and legal responses in Ethiopia: the northern conflict in focus

ABSTRACT This study aims to investigate conflict-driven human trafficking, focusing on the conflict between the federal government and the Tigray People’s Liberation Front in Ethiopia. Using human security theory, the study used a case study design to examine how the conflict increased internally displaced persons (IDPs) vulnerabilities to trafficking and exploitation. Interviewing 42 participants, including IDPs, government officials, NGO representatives, and illicit brokers, the study reveals that IDPs experienced sexual and labor exploitations, rape, and the recruitment of child soldiers. The government should effectively combat conflict-driven human trafficking by safeguarding IDPs, and future research is needed to explore this issue further.

Petro-politics, Gender Violence and Human Trafficking in Nigeria’s Niger Delta Region

In Nigeria’s Niger Delta, oil politics by global oil corporation, national government and local leaders perpetuate gender inequalities in the distribution of oil benefits to women in oil communities. Women also bear the greater cost of oil-induced environmental harms which adversely affect their traditional livelihood of farming and fishing. Scholarship on human trafficking in Nigeria focused scant attention on the structural conditions that influenced women experience of human trafficking in extractive contexts. This article examines how oil politics perpetuate gender violence and expose women to human trafficking for sexual exploitation and forced labour in the Niger Delta region. Based on feminist political ecology perspectives and field studies in selected oil communities, the study seeks to explain how oil politics perpetuate women’s socio-economic deprivation, in ways that expose them to human trafficking as victims and accomplice. Women exposure to human trafficking amplify their experience of gender violence and violate their rights and aspiration for emancipation and justice in Nigeria’s oil extractive region. International organizations and policy makers need to consider the global and local dynamics that magnified women’s experience of human trafficking in extractive communities and the wider implications for the global and local efforts to combat human trafficking.

ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SEX TRAFFICKING PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION PROGRAMS FOR NATIVE AMERICAN FEMALE YOUTH IN RURAL U.S. COMMUNITIES

Sex trafficking remains a pervasive issue affecting vulnerable populations across the United States, with Native American female youth in rural communities facing heightened risks due to factors such as historical trauma, systemic discrimination, and limited access to resources. This paper assesses the effectiveness of existing prevention and intervention programs targeting this demographic. The paper employs a comprehensive literature review and policy framework analysis. The study examines culturally responsive initiatives like the "Respecting the Circle of Life" program and the Indian Health Service's trauma-informed care practices. The findings revealed that though the aforementioned programs offer valuable insights and strategies, challenges persist, including insufficient culturally appropriate services, data limitations, and jurisdictional complexities that hinder effective intervention. The study also underscored that to effectively address sex trafficking among Native American female youth in rural areas, there is a need for programs that are culturally sensitive and community-driven to incorporate Indigenous knowledge and practices. Furthermore, the paper revealed that enhancing interagency collaborations and empowering Native voices are significant steps toward developing comprehensive solutions. This research underscores the importance of tailored approaches that address the unique vulnerabilities of this population, advocating for policy reforms and sustained efforts to create safe and supportive environments for Native American female youth. Keywords: Sex trafficking, Native American female youth, rural communities, prevention programs, intervention strategies, cultural responsiveness, policy framework, literature review, Indigenous populations, human trafficking.

A partially pooled network scale-up method model: detailed estimation of child sexual exploitation material trafficking prevalence in Philippine municipalities

Abstract Effective policy and intervention strategies to combat human trafficking for child sexual exploitation material (CSEM) production require accurate prevalence estimates. Traditional network scale-up method (NSUM) models often necessitate standalone surveys for each geographic region, escalating costs, and complexity. This study introduces a partially pooled NSUM model, using a hierarchical Bayesian framework that efficiently aggregates and utilizes data across multiple regions without increasing sample sizes. We developed this model for a novel national survey dataset from the Philippines and we demonstrate its ability to produce detailed municipal-level prevalence estimates of trafficking for CSEM production. Our results not only underscore the model’s precision in estimating hidden populations but also highlight its potential for broader application in other areas of social science and public health research, offering significant implications for resource allocation and intervention planning.

Enforcement of Sovereignty and Legal Measures Against Acts of Piracy at Sea Considered as a Form of Maritime Terrorism in Indonesian Waters

Maritime security threats take on various forms, ranging from piracy and armed robbery, smuggling via sea (including narcotics, arms, and human trafficking), global climate change, cargo theft, to the emerging issue of maritime terrorism. While piracy and armed robbery are significant concerns, maritime terrorism poses a comparably serious security challenge. Although terrorism and armed robbery are distinct phenomena arising from different motives, their characteristics often overlap. This overlap has led to misconceptions about these concepts and their threats to the maritime domain. Piracy and maritime terrorism share several definitional similarities but also exhibit notable distinctions. The primary difference lies in their motives: piracy is associated with personal financial gain, whereas maritime terrorism aims to achieve political objectives. The second distinction pertains to the methods employed. Piracy generally involves basic tactics, such as boarding vessels and stealing valuable goods, often accompanied by the use or threat of violence. Conversely, maritime terrorism may incorporate these basic tactics but distinguishes itself through its heightened level of violence, intended to attract global attention. The ultimate goal of maritime terrorism is to secure strategic political advantages. Maritime terrorism encompasses a broad scope, as it can occur across various contexts: sea-to-sea, sea-to-land, or land-to-sea. Consequently, it is imperative for Indonesia to enact specific legislation addressing maritime terrorism. The existing anti-terrorism laws are deemed insufficient to combat the complexities of maritime terrorism effectively. Dedicated legislation would provide the necessary legal framework to address this multifaceted issue comprehensively.

LEVERAGING AI AND ML TO INNOVATE FORENSIC FRAMEWORKS FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF ILLICIT OPERATIONS AND EXTRACTION OF DIGITAL ARTIFACTS WITHIN DEEP WEB AND DARK WEB ENVIRONMENTS

Significant chunks of the internet are made up of the deep web and dark web. The deep web refers to content that is not indexed by conventional search engines, while the dark web is a subset that is purposefully hidden and only accessible with the use of specialist tools like Tor. Academic databases, research papers, and private chat platforms are examples of respectable content found on the deep web, although the dark web has become notorious for harbouring illegal activity. Cybercrime, illicit drug markets, human trafficking, arms dealing, and other criminal operations that take advantage of the anonymity offered by Tor and VPNs are examples of these activities. For cybersecurity specialists, law enforcement organizations, and digital forensics specialists, looking into illicit activity in these areas is a significant task. Conventional forensic methods, which frequently depend on content analysis or IP address identification, are useless against anonymizing technology. To find digital evidence in these elusive regions, however, new developments in forensic techniques such as blockchain forensics, traffic fingerprinting, and machine learning techniques—offer encouraging alternatives. This study examines these methods and suggests a thorough framework for dark web and deep web digital forensics.

The strategy for fulfilling restitution payments for victims of human trafficking criminal acts

The right of every citizen to obtain equality and status before the law, as well as the fulfillment and acquisition of their rights. Restitution is compensation for victim assistance, as a fundamental right of law enforcement for human trafficking crimes, and mandatory provisions to be fulfilled by perpetrators for the consequences of the criminal acts committed. Since Law No. 21 of 2007 was enacted, the fulfillment of victims' rights has not been optimally implemented or facilitated at all. Previous research found two decisions at the Medan District Court; until now, the payment order has had no meaning for the convict, thus causing neglect and disregard for the rights that the victim has expected. The finding of this failure to pay, when associated with the calculation of losses concluded by the Witness Victim Protection Agency, between the amount concluded, the amount decided by the judge, and the amount of the perpetrator's ability to pay, has a considerable gap. It proves the opportunity for this criminal decision to be set aside. Based on these findings, it is necessary to conduct a study to improve the strategy for achieving the intended justice. This study is legal research conducted through a case approach and legal concepts; the aim is to find solutions to the evaluation process using existing legal regulations.

Bayesian-Negative Binomial Regression on Underreported Counts of Indonesian Female Trafficking Cases in 2023 using MCMC

The five-year report of the Task Force for the Prevention and Handling of Human Trafficking shows that in Indonesia from 2015 to 2019, 87.58% of human trafficking victims were women. Data of human trafficking cases often suffer from underreporting counts, where the number of reported incidents is smaller than the actual number of incidents. This study aims to estimate the actual number of cases of Indonesian female trafficking in 2023 using negative binomial regression underreported counts. Parameter estimation is conducted using a Bayesian approach through the Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method with Gibbs sampling algorithm with a total of 5000 iterations and a burn-in period after 3000 iterations. This study utilizes secondary data sourced from Central Java Data Portal and Central Bureau of Statistics Indonesia, with the dependent variable is the reported number of Indonesian female trafficking in 2023 (Y) and three independent variables that are factors influencing female trafficking: the percentage of the poor population ( ), the open unemployment rate ( ), and the level of high school or equivalent education completion ( ). The estimated actual number of female trafficking cases in 2023 in Aceh and West Sumatra is 4 and 2 cases respectively, with the unreported number of female trafficking cases amounting to 2 cases each. The average of actual number of Indonesian female trafficking in 2023 is 9 cases, while the average of unreported number of Indonesian female trafficking in 2023 is 2 cases

“From Protocols to Practice: International Cooperation and the Evaluation of Legal Mechanisms Against Human Trafficking”

The issue of human trafficking is arguably one of the most sophisticated illegal activities and global crimes due to its far-reaching impact on national boundaries, governance systems, law enforcement, and the protection of human rights. This paper aims to analyze the growing problem of human trafficking from the perspective of international cooperation, focusing on the role of bilateral and multilateral treaties, joint task forces, and other transgovernmental relations. It discusses the role of international treaties such as the Palermo Protocol in influencing legislative collaboration among nations and their domestic laws. The paper also emphasizes the need for more effective anti-trafficking strategies through enhanced data collection, information sharing, and monitoring frameworks. Analyzing the legal frameworks and their execution using the U.S. Trafficking in Persons (TIP) Report and other regional reports showcases the need for response improvement through stronger legal and policy frameworks. This paper also addresses the increasingly concerning issue of organ trafficking as well as the more neglected ethical issues associated with data concerning human trafficking victims. In planning the response to human trafficking in all its definitional breadth, the study advocates a holistic approach that combines cross-sector legal, institutional, and societal efforts.

Social Service Providers’ Understanding of the Consequences of Human Trafficking on Women Survivors—A South African Perspective

Human trafficking for forced labour or sexual exploitation often takes the form of forced migration. It is the third-largest crime industry in the world and has severe consequences on the women survivors. Trafficking violates the safety, welfare, and human rights of the victims and forces physical and psychological imprisonment on them. Despite the significant number of women being trafficked, little is known about the best ways to address their needs. This article highlights the understanding developed by social service providers in South Africa regarding the consequences of human trafficking on women survivors. Being aware of the complex challenges faced by women survivors of human trafficking enables social service providers to respond to their needs effectively through appropriate interventions and services. Data for this qualitative study were collected through one-on-one interviews and analysed using thematic analysis. Social service providers understand the following to be related to women survivors of trafficking: involvement in drugs and sex work, dependency on the perpetrator, lack of self-esteem, self-blame and shame, being disoriented, psychological challenges, lack of financial support, health issues, isolation, and loneliness. To be relevant and effective, services should be packaged in a manner that addresses all the challenges faced by women survivors of human trafficking.

Illicit Trade in Wartime: Ukraine’s Trends and Challenges for Counteraction

Abstract This theoretical and empirical study describes and explains the patterns of changes in domestic illicit trade and related transnational illicit flows of goods, services and money during the extreme social crises based on the case of the war in Ukraine. Depending on the legal status of the civil circulation of items, illicit trade is categorized into two groups: illicit (criminal) trade outside the economic sphere; and illicit (illegal) trade within the economic sphere. Typical destructive practices and their peculiarities during the war are considered in each group of illicit trade with the use of quantitative and qualitative methods. In terms of the dichotomy “war as a cause and consequence of crime”, this article addresses significant transformations in established criminal activities outside the official economy, such as drug trafficking and human trafficking, while also highlighting newly emerging crimes, specifically the illegal movement of conscripts across national borders. Furthermore, the article explores illegal trade within the economy, focusing on the trade in excisable goods and the new growing issue of abuse of humanitarian aid. The authors discuss the main deficiencies in adequate counteraction related to both war circumstances and systematic problems of state institutions, in particular, the criminal justice system.

Garbage in garbage out? Impacts of data quality on criminal network intervention

Criminal networks such as human trafficking rings are threats to the rule of law, democracy and public safety in our global society. Network science provides invaluable tools to identify key players and design interventions for Law Enforcement Agencies (LEAs), e.g., to dismantle their organisation. However, poor data quality and the robustness of criminal networks make effective intervention extremely challenging. Although there exists a large body of work building and applying network scientific tools to green intervene criminal networks, these work often neglect the problems of data incompleteness and inaccuracy. Moreover, there is thus far no comprehensive understanding of the impacts of data quality on the downstream effectiveness of interventions. This work investigates the relationship between data quality and intervention effectiveness based on classical graph theoretic and machine learning-based targeting approaches. Decentralization emerges as a major factor in network robustness, particularly under conditions of incomplete data, which renders intervention strategies largely ineffective. Moreover, the robustness of centralized networks can be boosted using simple heuristics, making targeted intervention more infeasible. Consequently, we advocate for a more cautious application of network science in disrupting criminal networks, the continuous development of an interoperable intelligence ecosystem, and the creation of novel network inference techniques to address data quality challenges.

Mapping Spanish Political Landscape on Migration: A Sentiment and Topic Analysis of Manifestos Ahead of the 2024 EU Election

ABSTRACT This study examines the electoral programmes of Spain’s four main national parties (PSOE, PP, VOX, and SUMAR) and Von der Leyen’s discourse after being re-elected as President of the European Commission regarding immigration, asylum seekers, and refugees. The key themes and disparities in the political discourses are found through text analysis, specifically tri-gram word clouds and Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA). Our findings reveal stark contrasts between the leftist SUMAR and the rightist VOX. SUMAR emphasises immigrants’ and human rights, while VOX focuses on the perceived failures of the EU’s immigration policy and human trafficking. The LDA analysis identifies 15 main topics with varying degrees of association for each party. Von der Leyen’s discourse aligns more closely with border control and security topics, advocating for a unified international approach. Correlation analysis further highlights the divergence between SUMAR and VOX discourses. In contrast, PSOE and PP exhibit a higher correlation, as do their positions with Von der Leyen’s discourse. These results underscore the distinct perspectives and approaches of the Spanish parties on immigration, revealing a complex political landscape shaped by ideological differences and external influences.

Review Criminology To Action Criminal Human Trafficking (TPPO)

Study This to study review criminology to act criminal human trafficking (TPPO), as well as factors that become reason the occurrence abuse narcotics in women in Makassar City. The method used is study law empirical with approach regulation legislation and approaches case For analyze existing regulations​ as well as challenge in enforcement law . Research results show that TPPO can understood as complex crimes , involving​ various factor economic , social and network criminal organized . Enforcement law to practice This faced with factors like lack of coordination between institutions and the lack of understanding public about risk law . Research This recommend improvement education law for public as well as strengthening capacity apparatus enforcer law For handle TPPO cases in general more effective . Research conclusion This emphasize importance protection comprehensive law​ For prevent and eradicate TPPO in Indonesia.

An Empirical Study on the Economic Conditions, Legal Safeguards and Welfare Provisions for Female Domestic Workers in Urban Area of Bengaluru, India

Domestic women workers are those who engage in cleaning the house, cooking, washing, and taking care of children, elderly, or sick members of a family, they work on a full-time, part-time, or hourly basis, and sometimes on a contract basis in private households (ILO-2020). In the informal workforce, most women are employed as domestic workers. Low wages, long working hours, and low social status characterize domestic women workers. It is estimated that the third-largest category of informal workers consists of domestic workers, followed by agriculture and construction workers; most of them work in urban areas. Domestic work is the primary source of income for people who are semi-literate or illiterate in India. According to various reports, there is an increased demand for domestic help as the country’s per capita income increases. Despite the need for domestic help, they continue to be deprived of protection and are left vulnerable to various kinds of abuse, like human trafficking, bonded labour, etc. The paper aims to examine the present legal framework protections and a few landmark case laws regarding their rights, and to analyze the impact of social security schemes introduced by the government on the informal sector on domestic workers in Bengaluru urban. The study is designed with empirical analysis, and collected 100 respondents from different parts of Bengaluru urban through random sampling from Bengaluru Urban, The secondary data is collected from journals, ILO reports, NSS reports, and articles. The study reveals a huge demand and ample opportunities for domestic workers because Bengaluru is its hub, people are busy with their office work schedule, and hardly get time to do the household chores. The regression method is used to analyze the hypothesis that the model indicates age, education, and Experience influence the awareness of social security schemes provided by the Government for women informal workers. The percentage method is also used to analyze the data. The study also portrays that most domestic women workers belong to the middle age group, have long working hours, and are happy with the social security measures introduced by the government. Many of the domestic women workers are migrant workers.

Qualitative Study on the Roles of Social Workers in Multi-Disciplinary Anti-Trafficking Teams in Enugu State, Nigeria

Recent reports indicate that human trafficking is the third-largest growing crime syndicate globally, with links to other crimes such as drug trafficking, organ harvesting, and sex trafficking. Nigeria, both a source and destination country for human trafficking, has seen a rise in reported cases. Multi-disciplinary anti-trafficking teams have been established to combat this growing crisis. However, there is limited research on the specific roles of social workers in these teams. Therefore, this phenomenological study aimed to investigate the contributions of social workers to multi-disciplinary anti-trafficking teams in Enugu state. In-depth interviews were conducted with 15 participants, including seven survivors of human trafficking and eight service providers. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data. Findings revealed that while social workers are primarily recognized for their curative interventions, their roles in prevention, such as protection and rehabilitation for trafficking-vulnerable populations, are often underutilized. The study also revealed that social workers in Nigeria collaborate with professionals in the legal and health sectors to strengthen anti-trafficking efforts. Future research should examine the legal and policy frameworks supporting social workers within multi-disciplinary anti-trafficking teams in Nigeria. These structures ensure effective coordination, resource allocation, and accountability among key stakeholders.