ABSTRACT Notwithstanding humanitarian crises at the EU external borders, migrant smuggling also comprises mundane solidarity-based and autonomous practices within Europe. Based on a socio-legal analysis of over a hundred court rulings in Finland, migrant smuggling predominantly covered assistance for asylum seekers and family members, usually embedded in social relations and personal networks. Overall, the sentences for the organisation of illegal entry mainly related to secondary smuggling of third-country nationals already assisted in reaching Europe, often involving the delivery of travel documents and joint travel via commercial routes within the Schengen area. The literalist and rigid sentencing practices, overlooking realities of migration and humanitarian considerations, expand punitive migration governance and reconfirm criminalisation of mobility, even with paradoxical outcomes. Despite some aggravated offences – including sentences for intermediaries – most defendants assisted with travel arrangements without any financial gain. Contrary to the impunity clause, the courts considered humanitarian motives mainly when lowering sentences, producing legal absurdities by treating family members, acquaintances, and fellow migrants as organised smugglers. The concept of the autonomy of migrant smuggling foregrounds the productive contradictions of migration governance in the criminalisation of self-organised and collective mobility practices that arise precisely from the necessity to navigate within the repressive border regime.

This article examines how U.S. and Mexican policies in the 1920s aimed at preventing and regulating Asian, South, and Eastern European immigration, shaped migrant smuggling strategies. By tracing the journeys of Chinese, Italians, and Jews to the United States, the article explores the construction of immigration regulations and methods to circumvent them. Focusing on transit migration, I show how U.S. immigration quotas and Mexican controls spurred the smuggling business and enabled corruption in Mexican immigration offices. The article underscores the role of transnational communities, family networks, and migrant contacts in financing and facilitating unauthorized migration through Mexico, at times using stopovers in Central America. This analysis illustrates how racialized immigration surveillance redirected migration routes and fostered businesses that evaded or enforced immigration controls in Mexico, shedding light on the factors shaping U.S.-Mexican borderland migration patterns.

ABSTRACT From 2021 to 2024, there was an unprecedented expansion of migrant entry and asylum seeking along the US-Mexico border from a growing diversity of countries, but especially from Venezuela and Haiti. This article focuses on the aspirations and capabilities of migrants seeking asylum, and the risks they undertake to reach the US southern border. The study is based on field research in the Lower Rio Grande Valley in which 153 migrants were interviewed. Methodologically, it develops a process for creating migrant journey maps based on in-depth interviews and place-specific journey details as a form of counter-mapping that visualises individual capabilities and risks over time and through space. Theoretically, the work expands the aspirations and capabilities framework proposed by Hein de Haas, H. 2021. “A Theory of Migration: The Aspirations-Capabilities Framework.” Comparative Migration Studies 9 (1): 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-020-00210-4] by adding the risks (extortion, kidnapping, hunger, and violence) to which migrants and their families are subjected on these journeys. Many of the risks resulted from migration deterrence policies created by the US and Mexico, along with growing involvement of cartels in human smuggling and extortion.

The paper will discuss the limited legal role that the Federal Investigation Agency (FIA) in Pakistan is granted by the Joint Maritime Information Organisation Act, 2019. Although the FIA has a broad jurisdiction covering counter-terrorism, anti-money laundering, human trafficking, and transnational organized crime cases, the JMIO Act, 2019 only covers the agency to issues of immigration. This study examines the mismatch between the real legal capability of the FIA and its limited role at the Joint Maritime Information Coordination Centre (JMICC). By conducting comparative analysis of National Command Authority Act, 2010, and the National Counter Terrorism Authority Act, 2013, this paper reveals that there are critical areas in maritime security in Pakistan. The results indicate that an ideal exploitation of the FIA legal requirement would greatly improve the ability of Pakistan to combat maritime crimes such as terrorism financing, money laundering and cyber-facilitated crimes in the Pakistani waters. Some of the recommendations are changes in legislation to increase the role of FIA as a part of the JMIO framework and improving the mechanisms of inter-agency coordination to counter transnational maritime threats, especially those to the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor. References Ali, S. I. (2018). The Federal Investigation Agency Act, 1974: Together with selected laws contained in the schedule along with commentaries. Rahber Publisher. Anti-Money Laundering Act, 2010, Act No. VII of 2010 (Pakistan). Anti-Terrorism Act, 1997, Act No. XXVII of 1997 (Pakistan). Bhatti, B. A. (2021, January 14). Joint Maritime Information Coordination Center: A milestone toward Maritime Domain Awareness in Pakistan. Maritime Study Forum. https://www.maritimestudyforum.org/joint-maritime-information-coordination-center-a-milestone-toward-maritime-domain-awareness-in-pakistan/ Bueger, C., McCabe, R., & Edmunds, T. (2020). Capacity building for maritime security: The Western Indian Ocean experience. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34630-9 CPEC Authority Act, 2021, Act No. VIII of 2021 (Pakistan). Dawn. (2019, May 12). 5 people killed in Gwadar PC hotel attack; army concludes clearance operation. https://www.dawn.com/news/1481840 Evans, M. D., & Galani, S. (Eds.). (2020). Maritime security and the law of the sea: Help or hindrance? Edward Elgar Publishing. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781788118104 Federal Investigation Agency. (2021). Red Book 2021: Most wanted high profile terrorists. FIA Headquarters, Islamabad. FIA Act, 1974, Act No. VIII of 1975 (Pakistan). Financial Action Task Force. (2022). Increased monitoring: June 2022. https://www.fatf-gafi.org/publications/high-risk-and-other-monitored-jurisdictions/documents/increased-monitoring-june-2022.html Geiß, R., & Petrig, A. (2011). Piracy and armed robbery at sea: The legal framework for counter-piracy operations in Somalia and the Gulf of Aden. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199609529.001.0001 Jaffrelot, C. (2016). Pakistan at the crossroads: Domestic dynamics and external pressures. Columbia University Press. Joint Maritime Information Organisation Act, 2019, Gazette Notification F.22(29)2019-Legis (Pakistan). Khan, A. (2022). The NCB and INTERPOL: Cooperation in international law enforcement. Law Enforcement Press. Klein, N. (2012). Maritime security and the law of the sea. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199566532.001.0001 Nawaz, F. (2022). Challenges to maritime security of Pakistan. Saudi Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 7(2), 73–78. https://doi.org/10.36348/sjhss.2022.v07i02.004 NACTA Act, 2013, Act No. XIX of 2013 (Pakistan). National Command Authority Act, 2010, Gazette Notification (Pakistan). Patel, R. (2022). Unmasking the truth: Investigating the Mumbai terrorist attacks. Counterterrorism Publishing. Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act, 2016, Act No. XL of 2016 (Pakistan). Prevention of Smuggling of Migrants Act, 2018, Act No. XXXV of 2018 (Pakistan). Prevention of Trafficking in Persons Act, 2018, Act No. XXXIV of 2018 (Pakistan). Tankel, S. (2013). Storming the world stage: The story of Lashkar-e-Taiba. Oxford University Press. United Nations. (1982). United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. UN Doc. A/CONF.62/122. United Nations Security Council. (2001). Resolution 1373. UN Doc. S/RES/1373. United Nations Security Council. (2004). Resolution 1540. UN Doc. S/RES/1540. United Nations Security Council. (2017). Resolution 2396. UN Doc. S/RES/2396.

The absence of a clear legal framework governing stateless vessels on the high seas poses a significant threat to maritime safety and security. These vessels, which operate without a flag or nationality, fall outside the traditional regulatory structure of flag state jurisdiction, leading to complex legal, jurisdictional, and enforcement challenges. The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), a cornerstone of maritime law, offers limited guidance on the regulation of stateless vessels, resulting in inconsistent state practices and jurisdictional uncertainties. This article analyses the legal ambiguities surrounding stateless vessels, particularly concerning the exercise of jurisdiction, examining the competing theories of jurisdiction, namely the ‘any state theory’ and the ‘nexus state theory.’ It argues for the adoption of the ‘any state theory’ to close the jurisdictional gap and ensure maritime order, thereby preventing stateless vessels from operating with impunity. The findings of this analysis highlight the urgent need for a robust and coherent legal framework to address the operation of stateless vessels and its impact on the international legal system. The study emphasizes the importance of establishing clear rules and mechanisms to prevent illicit activities such as drug trafficking, migrant smuggling, and illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, and to ensure accountability on the high seas. Ultimately, this article underscores the necessity of upholding the integrity of the law of the sea through enhanced international cooperation and the development of effective measures to govern stateless vessels.

Socio-political insecurity, crime, and violence have been on the rise in the Rohingya camps in Bangladesh. This qualitative study explored the types, factors, existing measures, and challenges associated with insecurity, crime, and violence within the Rohingya camps. This study then sought to address the challenges of achieving Sustainable Development Goal 16 (peace, justice, and strong institutions) within the context of the Rohingya crisis. Ten key informant interviews were conducted using snowball sampling. The thematic analysis revealed drug smuggling and trading, the dominance of extremist groups, killing, human smuggling and trafficking, frequent fire outbreaks, stealing, and gender-based violence as the major insecurity issues in the camp. Financial interests, lack of mental well-being, and involvement of extremist Rohingya groups were identified as factors behind them. As a precaution against such events, limited access to camp areas, multiple checkpoints, relocating Rohingya refugees to Bhasan Char island, and training for humanitarian workers were found to be in place. The lack of policies, difficulties with interventions, and the use of false identification documents were identified as challenges. Based on these findings, this study provides several recommendations for national authorities, humanitarian organisations, and international partners to enhance security, justice, and social stability in the Rohingya camps, and to ensure peace, justice, and strong institutions, as outlined in SDG 16.

Human smuggling is an immigration-related criminal offense that has serious impacts on state sovereignty and legal order. Although it has been explicitly regulated in Law Number 6 of 2011 concerning Immigration, the enforcement of this law still faces various challenges, particularly regarding the legal liability of perpetrators and judicial considerations in assessing the fulfillment of criminal elements, especially when the perpetrator is an Indonesian citizen. This research aims to analyze the legal liability of perpetrators who transport people across national borders without using valid travel documents and to examine the legal basis of judicial considerations in Decision Number 684/Pid.Sus/2025/PN Mdn. The method used in this research is normative legal research with statutory and case approaches. The results of this study indicate that legal liability can be imposed if all elements of Article 120 paragraph (1) of the Immigration Law are fulfilled, including the element of intent and the act of transporting people across national borders illegally. Judicial considerations are based on the proof of intent, the active role of the perpetrator, and the commission of acts outside the immigration inspection mechanism, so that the decision reflects efforts to protect state sovereignty and prevent human smuggling.

Abstract This article discusses the European migration control system and its connection to the facilitation of migrant smuggling in West Africa. Using Nigeria’s experience, the paper explores the key developments that contributed to the expansion of the migrant smuggling business, namely, the European biometric ID systems, the digitalization of external borders, and intensive border securitization. These key measures are linked to the emergence and deepening of the operations of the new identity and document fraud cartel in Nigeria, a sub-component of the smuggling business model. I delineate a new conceptual framework, “biometric border paradox,” to depict the contradiction of the European migration control system in its external borders in Africa. The problem is linked to the new form of biometric ID and travel document fraud in corporate (government) agencies: the “corporate smugglers.” I coin two key concepts to describe this modality: “biometricycle” and “biometricyclists,” which refer to a tricycle-smuggling network that operates through the biometric ID system, involving three groups: local identity-faking entrepreneurs, IT experts, and corporate officials within the government’s biometric ID sector and immigration service. Vulnerable migrants who do not comply with the new biometric ID systems fall victim to biometric ID and travel document fraud, which exposes them to certain types of identity conflicts, state criminalization, and loss of social integration.

ABSTRACT The 2015 “migrant crisis” marked a turning point for the EU's external borders, highlighting weaknesses in managing irregular migration. Greece, at the heart of the “crisis,” became a testing ground for new governance models. This article explores the evolving migration control framework, focusing on institutions like the European Migrant Smuggling Center (EMSC) and the expanded roles of EUROPOL and FRONTEX. Based on semi-structured interviews between 2022 and 2023 with key actors, including the Hellenic Police, Coast Guard, and EU agencies (FRONTEX, EUROPOL and FRA) we analyze the normalization of “containment” policies aimed at reducing migration flows, culminating in the 2024 New Pact on Migration and Asylum. These policies reflect a shift toward “smart” border management, marked by the “externalization” of control and a redefinition of political sovereignty. Findings reveal the enduring impact of the “crisis” on Greece’s role in EU migration governance and the broader implications for European border policy.

The migration crisis as a tool of hybrid warfare -Analysis of selected cases at the borders of the European Union

Abstract Organized crime in Albania has evolved into a complex and multidimensional phenomenon, encompassing drug trafficking, money laundering, cyber-enabled offenses, and environmental crime. While cannabis cultivation remains largely domestic, Albania continues to function as a key transit route for heroin and cocaine destined for European Union markets. The growing use of cryptocurrencies and the Dark Web has further facilitated financial concealment and cross-border transactions, intensifying challenges for law enforcement and regulatory authorities. International assessments consistently indicate elevated levels of criminal activity, with illicit financial flows and high-risk criminal markets—particularly narcotics trafficking, financial crime, cybercrime, and human smuggling—remaining significant concerns. Against this backdrop, Albania has undertaken a substantial transformation in its approach to combating organized crime, shifting from a predominantly police-centered model toward a comprehensive, multi-institutional framework that emphasizes prevention, interagency coordination, and the reuse of confiscated criminal assets for public benefit. This paper examines the evolution of national strategies, institutional architecture, and operational capacities, with particular attention to newly established and strengthened bodies such as the Special Prosecution Office Against Corruption and Organized Crime (SPAK), the National Bureau of Investigation, and asset recovery and financial intelligence mechanisms. Drawing on international academic literature, European Commission progress reports, and institutional assessments, the study evaluates Albania’s adaptive capacity to respond to evolving criminal dynamics and its efforts to align domestic policies and practices with European Union standards.

Human trafficking and migrant smuggling constitute a major challenge to the global community. These twin-crimes remain a very serious security threat and are among the major causes of different international organized crimes the world over. As organized crimes, they have killed and destroyed many people, making nations of the world to enact laws prohibiting them. These crimes continue to grow by leaps and bounds because they are very lucrative and the chances of the criminals being arrested and prosecuted are minimal, despite being deadly. In Nigeria, which is a source, transit and destination country combined, these crimes are prevalent as victims are used as prostitutes, drug traffickers, terrorists, child soldiers/laborers and bandits within and outside the country. It is pertinent to note that the traffickers take advantage of Nigeria’s porous borders, population boom and unfavorable economic conditions that aggravate unemployment, underemployment, poverty and insecurity to seek for better opportunities in other countries. However, documentary research was used to gather data from books, electronic journals and institutional reports. Theoretically, failed state theory was adopted to analyze human trafficking and migrant smuggling in Nigeria. The study maintained that the Nigerian state is not free from culpability as it has failed to empower its people by providing basic infrastructure needed to liberate the people from poverty to prosperity despite the return of democracy since 1999, as the elites have continued to squander collective patrimony leaving the country dry. Hence, the only opportunity for the youths is to escape to Europe and America at all cost even without the necessary authorization. The study concluded that human trafficking and migrant smuggling can be reduced in Nigeria if the government rises up to the occasion by investing massively in education and infrastructure which are fundamental for empowerment. Also, the government must create enabling environment for business to thrive, by investing in security of lives and property which remain the bane of development in Nigeria. Again, the government, CSOs and NGOs must intensify campaigns against these crimes by informing the youths on the antics of the criminals and the dangers associated with human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Above all, leadership must be responsible and deliberate, in creating an egalitarian society where social safety nets are provided for the unemployed to earn a living and contribute back to the society.

Agenda setting, defined as the process by which decision-makers prioritise certain issues, is critical for legislative bodies in terms of reflecting public demands, identifying areas of conflict, using resources efficiently and ensuring the effectiveness of the legislative process. The main purpose of this study is to determine how the Lake Van Basin is included in the political agenda and in what contexts it is discussed through the GNAT minutes. In the research conducted based on the agenda setting theory, document and content analysis, which are qualitative research methods, were used. The minutes of the GNAT general assembly between 1923 and 2023 were scanned, 429 minutes were identified, and discussions, draft laws, questions and proposals related to Lake Van were analysed. With the findings obtained, it was concluded that Lake Van was addressed under six themes: economic resource, tourism potential, environmental degradation, disaster risk, education, and migrant smuggling. Lake Van was evaluated as an economic resource, especially with its soda and pearl mullet production, and was brought to the agenda with development discourses in the Parliament together with its hydroelectric and mining potential. In terms of tourism, it has been a part of both local and national planning with its natural and cultural values and has attracted the attention of the central government, especially in the period after 1960. Earthquakes and flood disasters have generally entered the agenda of the Parliament after crises and have been addressed with reactive policies. Environmental degradation and pollution have been discussed with increasing awareness since the 1990s, and treatment facilities and protection measures have been on the agenda. In terms of education, the establishment of a university around the lake has been considered as a strategic goal for many years. With the recent increase in migrant mobility, migrant smuggling and migrant deaths have been evaluated in the GNAT within the framework of human security. In general, it has been concluded that the GNAT has put issues related to Lake Van on its agenda more during times of crisis and has been limited in developing permanent policies.

Between the Mediterranean coast and European borders, clandestine supply chains orchestrate the movement of thousands of migrants using remarkably structured logistics. Lacking formal hierarchies or standardized protocols, smuggling networks rely on migration hubs and continuously adjust routes and resources to respond to unforeseen circumstances. Their modularity and rapid adaptability reflect principles comparable to modern supply chain management (SCM), particularly in planning, resilience, and flexibility. Beyond political and security considerations, examining these flows demonstrates that operational efficiency can emerge from unethical practices grounded in experience, tacit knowledge, and social networks. While the objectives of commercial supply chains and smuggling networks differ, the insights gained are applicable to managing flows, coordinating stakeholders, and handling disruptions. The article also addresses the ethical tensions inherent in irregular migration, revealing a logistical order established through human exploitation. It provides a distinctive analytical framework for exploring the modularity, resilience, and agility of logistical systems, offering a refined understanding of flow management in complex and uncertain environments. The goal is not to transpose the dark aspects of SCM to the business world but to examine its mechanisms and challenges from a societal perspective.

The complex issue of human smuggling and refugees presents challenges for law enforcement officials in Indonesia. This study analyzes the effectiveness of law enforcement against cases of smuggling of mania, especially refugees, from the perspective of development law theory. Normative juridical research methods with legal and conceptual approaches. The research results show that human smuggling has been regulated in a special regulation through Emergency Law No. 8 of 1995 and Law No. 9 of 1992 concerning Immigration. However, the two laws and regulations only regulate the issue of immigration violations, so it is not possible to ensnare perpetrators of human smuggling crimes. On the other hand, the government's response efforts through Law Number 6 of 2011 are still ineffective in tackling human smuggling. In the context of Development Law Theory, there are strategies for effectiveness in handling the enforcement of refugee smuggling laws in Indonesia in the future, namely The Importance of Regulatory Reform in Dealing with Refugee Smuggling, Discretion in Law Enforcement, Decisions Based on Morals and Social, and the Importance of International Cooperation in Handling Refugee Smuggling, as well as the Empowerment of Law Enforcement Officials

ABSTRACT This paper examines the border security situation along the Ghana-Burkina Faso border in the Upper East Region of Ghana within the context of the Sahelian crisis. Employing a qualitative approach, the study gathers data through interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs). Drawing from the Regional Security Complex theory, this study argues that the security of the Upper East Region of Ghana should be assessed within the broader regional security dynamics, which include terrorism in the Sahel, arms trafficking, human smuggling, and other security challenges. The findings reveal that, while the security situation along the border remains relatively stable, several critical issues impede effective border governance and security. These challenges include inadequate resources, limited technological capabilities, corruption, and a lack of inter-agency collaboration among border agencies, as well as insufficient engagement with local border communities. To enhance border security, the Government of Ghana must prioritise improved coordination among various agencies, foster greater community involvement, and install modern surveillance technological devices, such as drones, to assist personnel in monitoring movements along the border. Greater cooperation with the Government of Burkina Faso and other stakeholders in the border space should be prioritised through an emphasis on an integrated border management approach.

Globalization has created an interconnected and interdependent world, brought various conveniences while simultaneously raised new challenges in human rights issues. One prominent negative impact is the rise of Transnational Organized Crime (TOC), including human smuggling, which is increasingly facilitated by technological developments and market openness. This practice resembles a free market, where actors compete to attract customers without formal mechanisms for resolving disputes or enforcing contracts, giving rise to trust issues that are often addressed through reputational investment. This study aims to examine the gaps in Indonesia's national law in responding to this phenomenon and assess its relevance to international standards, particularly the Palermo Protocol. Using normative methods through literature review and a comparative approach, this study highlights the relationship between globalization, human smuggling, and the existing legal framework. The findings indicate that although the UN, through the UNODC and the Conference of Parties (COP), has initiated TOC prevention mechanisms, their implementation remains weak without strong normative ties. In conclusion, harmonization of Indonesian law with international standards is needed to strengthen human rights protection and the effectiveness of law enforcement against human smuggling.

There are few certainties in the field of migration. From the factors that drive migrants to flee their countries and the conditions they expect to find in the destination country to migrants’ flows, routes and methods, migration policy is constantly functioning within a field of uncertainty. Yet, the importance of better managing migration processes is becoming increasingly relevant due to the multiple factors that stimulate the international movement of people, such as conflict, political or economic instability or climate change. The uncertainty surrounding the European Union’s (EU) ability to manage migration has spurred a twofold approach: the criminalisation of migrant smuggling (in an all-encompassing way) and the externalisation of migration policy through agreements with third countries. However, are these approaches effective, or should the EU consider alternative strategies to address the challenges posed by irregular migration? The purpose of this article is to evaluate the effectiveness of the EU’s policies on irregular migration, by exploring firstly the effectiveness of criminal law in deterring migrant smuggling and secondly the EU’s recent emphasis on externalisation. The consequences of both are examined in an effort to determine their effectiveness towards the objective. The article concludes with some suggestions for the way forward.

The Algerian legislator has established a comprehensive legal framework to combat the phenomenon of illegal migration pursuant to Law No. 24-06. This law has tightened the penalty for illegal departure from the national territory through the amendment introduced to Article 175 bis 01 of the Penal Code, making the punishment imprisonment from 06 months to 03 years in addition to a financial fine. It has also increased the penalty for the crime of migrant smuggling to imprisonment from 05 to 10 years. This crime takes the classification of a felony, with a prison sentence ranging from 10 to 20 years in the event that aggravating circumstances are present, such as the exploitation of a minor, endangering the lives of migrants, or its commission within an organized criminal group. This legal framework is further completed by imposing the obligation to report the crime of smuggling, under penalty of imprisonment from 01year to 05 years for those who fail to do so, while providing mitigating and exempting excuses from punishment for those who cooperate with the authorities through early reporting.

Organized crime is one of the United States security priorities, including Mexican cartels and transnational gang drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) along the Texas-México border. Organized crime behaviors along the Texas-México border have garnered global attention due to the ever-evolving criminal operandi that generate illicit revenue. In this article, Texas-México organized crime is evaluated by analyzing several criminal groups: Mexican drug cartels, US-based gangs, and hybrid-neighborhood gangs. This article employs a qualitative comparative case study approach to N = 96 police investigative reports collected from the Texas-México border and provided by the Zapata County Sheriff’s Office. From the 96 investigative report data, two groups were generated to form gang-related reports (N= 48), and non-gang reports (N = 48). The qualitative analysis included thematic analysis and conceptual mapping using the computer-assisted qualitative analysis software, MAXQDA. The police investigative reports consist of official Sheriff Deputy narratives explaining the observed behavior of individuals engaging in border crime. The police investigative reports included two Texas-México border crimes: migrant smuggling and drug crimes, both of which were analyzed to qualitatively explain gang and non-gang behavioral differences. The qualitative results found Tango Blast gang members to predominate the gang incidents along the Texas-México border but also indicated support for the manifestation of hybrid-neighborhood gang drug trafficking in higher populated border towns. The non-gang group demonstrated a higher number of migrant victims with migrant smuggling incidents. The study findings provide implications for theory, policy, and law enforcement programs with future directions for police executives and public safety stakeholders.