Snakebite is a significant public health concern in tropical and subtropical regions. Globally, it is estimated that 4.5–5.4 million snake bites occur each year, of which 1.8–2.7 million results in clinically evident envenomation, with an estimated mortality ranging from 81,000 to 138,000 annually. India has 52 species of venomous snakes and accounts for nearly 50% of the global deaths attributed to venomous snakebite. The incidence and pattern of snakebite vary across different geographical areas and are influenced by factors such as climate, ecology, biodiversity, snake distribution, and human population density. The present study included fatal snakebite cases subjected to medico-legal autopsy at the Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Patna Medical College, Patna. Information about demographic profile (age, sex, occupation, and socioeconomic status), geographical area, seasonal trends, site and pattern of bite, local tissue changes, and manner of bite was documented in a standardized proforma and analyzed accordingly. In this study, the majority of victims were males in the 21–30 year age group, predominantly engaged in agricultural work, and most bites were accidental in nature. Hands and feet were the most common sites affected. Most cases occurred during the rainy season. In the majority of victims, two fang marks were identified at the bite site, accompanied by subcutaneous hemorrhage, necrosis, swelling, and local cellulitis. Snakebite burden is highest among males aged 21–30 years, most of whom belong to economically weaker rural populations engaged in farming occupations.

As populations age, the number of people with age-related chronic diseases increases, causing significant social, economic and health problems. Natural variation in lifespan depends on multiple interacting genes and environmental exposures. Its short generation time and many resources make Drosophila melanogaster an advantageous model to uncover the genetic architecture that underlies variation in lifespan. We performed whole genome sequencing on young and old flies, sexes separately, in an outbred advanced intercross population (AIP) derived from inbred, sequenced lines from the Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel (DGRP). We identified mostly sex-specific variants (extreme Quantitative Trait Loci; xQTLs) at 1,107 genes associated with increased lifespan. We used the same AIP for RNA sequencing of heads, bodies and reproductive tissues for males and females weekly to 10weeks of age. We identified 2,613 genes with age-related changes, of which 186 had xQTLs. Over half of the significant effects of gene expression with age included sex- and/or tissue-specific context-dependent effects, many of which were antagonistic, indicating complex trade-offs in gene regulation in the context of lifespan. We mapped genes whose expression changes with age onto known gene-gene and protein-protein interactions to construct interaction networks anchored by xQTLs. These networks were enriched for evolutionarily conserved mitochondrial, metabolic, neuronal, immune and developmental genes. Human orthologs of Drosophila genes associated with senescence and lifespan were prevalent indicating the translational potential of results from Drosophila to human populations. Natural genetic variation in Drosophila identifies sex- and/or tissue-specific genetic variation and networks enriched for evolutionarily conserved genes.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large family of synthetic chemicals known for their exceptional stability, strong surface activity, and ability to repel both water and oil. Due to these characteristics, PFAS have been widely used since the 1950s across multiple industries. However, over the decades, these substances have emerged as persistent and bioaccumulative contaminants. While it is evident that PFAS pose adverse effects on both ecosystems and human well-being, the mechanisms underlying their toxicities are yet to be fully understood. To better examine the thematic evolution of PFAS research, this review divides the literature into four distinct eras: before 2000s, from 2000 to 2010, from 2010 to 2020, and from 2020 onwards. Since the latter half of the 20th century, the rapid development and mass production of PFAS resulted in the manufacture of thousands of industrial and household products. After decades of concerns regarding their toxic impacts, major phase-outs in the early 2000s shifted attention towards environmental studies and biomonitoring. Throughout the 2010s, extensive studies were conducted to assess the PFAS toxicities, especially perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), the two widely detected compounds on human populations. Since 2020, research efforts have increasingly progressed toward molecular-level studies, advancements in analytical detection methods, and remediation technologies. Additionally, this review examines regulatory changes, highlights current knowledge gaps, and outlines directions for future research.

Previous research has shown substantial variation in sexual dimorphism of facial structure and skin color across human populations. This study investigates sexual dimorphism in both facial shape and skin color in understudied populations from the Horn of Africa - Somalis and Ethiopians - focusing on the relationship between facial morphology and pigmentation traits. Standardized frontal and profile photographs were collected from participants and analyzed using geometric morphometrics. Sexual shape dimorphism (SShD) was calculated by projecting each individual's facial shape onto a vector connecting average male and female shapes in Procrustes-aligned morphospace; higher values indicate more masculine morphology. Sexual color dimorphism (SCoD) was computed similarly, by projecting individual skin color values (from forehead and cheeks) onto a vector defined by average male-female difference in the CIE Lab* color space. Trajectory analysis and Bayesian hierarchical modelling were performed to examine associations between SShD and SCoD. Significant sexual dimorphism was detected in both facial shape and skin color across both populations. Male faces tended to be more robust and darker, while female faces were more gracile and lighter-skinned. However, despite group-level sex differences, individual-level associations between facial structure and skin pigmentation were weak or absent. Somali participants exhibited greater dimorphism in skin color compared to Ethiopians, while facial shape dimorphism remained consistent between groups. Both target populations revealed significant sexual dimorphism in both structural and pigmentation facial traits. However, in contrast to previous findings reported in certain West African populations, we found no statistically reliable association between these two traits at the individual level. This decoupling may indicate distinct evolutionary or ecological pressures shaping morphological and pigmentation traits. Our findings suggest that no universal trade-off or consistent relationship exists between morphological and pigmentation components of sexual dimorphism across human populations.

ABSTRACT Aim As anthropogenic activities continue, species are exposed to climate change and rapid urbanisation that alter their distribution; however, the relative contributions of climate and anthropogenic influence on species distribution are unknown for most species. We use an environmentally sensitive salamander genus ( Eurycea ) that occupies urban and forested habitats to test the relative importance of temperature‐, precipitation‐ and urbanisation‐related variables before placing these results into a phylogenetic context. We aim to test the impact of climate and urbanisation in driving the distribution of the genus while evaluating patterns of niche conservatism. Location Nearctic. Taxon Eurycea (Plethodontidae, Lungless Salamanders). Methods We developed MAXENT niche models for 13 Eurycea species using bioclimatic and urbanisation‐related variables. We assessed the importance of these environmental variables through permutation importance and compared response curves to determine niche overlap. Phylogenetic analyses tested for evolutionary constraints on species responses to environmental factors. Results Climatic variables were the primary drivers of Eurycea distributions, while urbanisation‐related variables had lower overall importance. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that responses to urbanisation‐related factors, specifically impervious surface and human population density, exhibited significant phylogenetic signal, indicating a stronger evolutionary constraint on responses to urbanisation than to climate. While climatic variables showed limited phylogenetic conservatism, niche overlap analyses demonstrated that more closely related species had greater similarity in ecological responses to urbanisation than to climate. Evolutionary history influenced species' ecological tolerances, with some environmental responses more conserved than expected under Brownian motion. Main Conclusions Our findings highlight the role of evolutionary history in shaping Eurycea responses to environmental variation. While climatic factors predominantly influence broadscale distributions, urbanisation‐related responses are more evolutionarily conserved across the genus. These results suggest that past evolutionary trajectories may constrain species' capacity to adapt to novel anthropogenic stressors, underscoring the importance of incorporating phylogenetic perspectives in conservation strategies for Eurycea and other evolutionarily constrained taxa.

The recent detection of populations of the mosquito Aedes vittatus in the Dominican Republic and Cuba has raised concerns over its potential for broader invasion in the Western Hemisphere, and particularly on the North American mainland. This species has been associated with the maintenance and transfer of yellow fever, Zika, chikungunya, and dengue viruses on its native distributional area. A previous study identified parts of North America with environments apparently suitable for the species, but different modeling approaches can give different results. Using models calibrated across the region historically accessible to the species, we re-examined the distributional potential of this species. Our models identified areas with year-round environmental suitability for this species along the southern coasts of the US, Mexico, Caribbean islands, and Central America. These environmentally suitable areas coincide with those for other Aedes species and overlap with urban settings, potentially placing large human populations at increased risk in case of successful establishment and invasion by this species. Targeting entomological surveillance in these and nearby areas is important for early detection to avoid establishment of populations of this species.

Sexual dimorphism has been implied to certain human physiology and diseases. This topic has recently garnered more attention, highlighting individual variances in precision medicine and individualized clinical trials. It is recognized that individual gene expression variations in males and females could have profound physiological impacts. Tissue specific expression profiles determine protein-coding gene activities and contribute additional physiological variations. Therefore, tissue specific gene expression profiles should be comprehensively analyzed among individual human subjects. In this report, we developed a user-friendly bioinformatic tool to visualize gene expression levels and variances across tissue samples, aiming to facilitate research into potential sexual dimorphism genes. The Gini coefficient metric was used with the most recent GTEx V10 datasets to examine variations in the expression profiles of human protein-coding genes across 43 tissue subtypes. Next, these variations were specifically evaluated using the Gini coefficient index for male and female individuals across all tissue subtypes. Our web-based visualization tool generated tissue specific expression profiles for individual male and female samples. It concurrently illustrates expression levels and variation comparisons between male and female groups across all tissue subtypes. Although most protein-coding genes had similar expression variation patterns between the two sexes, several genes exhibited distinct variations for some tissue subtypes, as indicated by their significant Z-scores in Gini index disparities. Users can explore differentially expressed protein-coding genes across tissue subtypes or search for genes of interest in the Tissue Prominent Sexual Dimorphism Gene database (https://tpsdg.ibms.sinica.edu.tw).This database can be employed to visualize expression levels and variations among individual samples within specific tissues, thereby facilitating future research into divergently expressed protein-coding genes in the human population.

Flaviviridae viruses constitute formidable zoonotic agents with substantial global health and economic ramifications, attributable to their adeptness at circumventing host immune surveillance and establishing persistent infections across human and animal populations. Despite their pervasive impact, broadly effective antiviral strategies remain elusive. Emerging studies underscore the pivotal role of RNA modifications, particularly 5-methylcytosine (m5C), in fine-tuning host-pathogen interactions. Expanding upon prior evidence linking NSUN2-mediated m5C deposition to Classical swine fever virus (CSFV, Pestivirus of Flaviviridae) persistence, the present study demonstrates that Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV, Flavivirus of Flaviviridae) similarly commandeers host epitranscriptomic machinery. Specifically, JEV-encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) engages the SAE1 to induce SUMO3/4-mediated stabilization of NSUN2. Elevated NSUN2 promotes m5C methylation of Cebpd mRNA, expediting transcript degradation and dampening cGAS-STING-driven antiviral signaling. This regulatory cascade facilitates viral replication and persistence. This regulatory axis supports sustained viral replication and persistence. Notably, a homologous mechanism is operative in Orthomyxoviridae infection, indicating evolutionary convergence on NSUN2 as a proviral effector. Overall, these unprecedented findings define a conserved RdRp-SAE1-NSUN2-CEBPD axis as a key epitranscriptomic immune evasion strategy and nominate m5C methyltransferases as tractable targets for host-directed, broad-spectrum antiviral therapy.

Biodiversity hotspots are areas of exceptional ecological value and they often coincide with high human population densities. These biodiverse areas may experience high levels of human-wildlife conflict, threatening both wildlife and local communities. While environmental education (EE) offers a promising tool for mitigating conflict, the ecological, cultural, and political diversity across hotspots poses significant challenges for designing and adapting effective EE interventions. To test whether an EE program could scale across the Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot in India, we developed and implemented the Wild Shaale program in government schools across three states: Goa, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu from June 2022 to February 2023. Our objective was to assess whether the program had a consistent impact across states or if regional differences influenced learning outcomes. Here, we report on data from 7381 students from 200 schools around 11 wildlife reserves with equal participation from boys and girls across the three states. We found that participation in the Wild Shaale program led to significant increases in environmental knowledge and knowledge of safety behaviors in all three states, as well as small positive shifts in most measures of environmental attitudes. We also found that there are significant differences in baseline attitudes towards wildlife and baseline levels of environmental knowledge across states. Students in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu had a more positive baseline attitude towards wildlife in general compared to Goa and students in Tamil Nadu had the lowest pre-test scores on environmental knowledge questions. Despite small regional differences, we found that Wild Shaale emerges as a scalable education program that is effective across diverse cultural, political and ecological contexts. We show that a single, adaptable EE program can be effectively scaled across diverse socio-ecological contexts.

A fifth of the calories consumed by humans come from wheat. In 2023, 789 million tonnes of wheat were produced worldwide. With an increasing human population, demand for wheat is expected to increase. With rising production costs and increased environmental instability, novel solutions are required to enhance productivity. Beneficial fungal endophytes belonging to the Epichloë genus may provide a solution. These endophytes are used as protection against insect herbivory in commercial pasture grasses throughout the world via animal safe secondary metabolites. Other benefits from Epichloë include resistance to fungal pathogens and increased resistance to abiotic stress such as drought. Asexual Epichloë, which are used in commercial forage grasses, grow intercellularly and are vertically transmitted (maternally inherited). Modern wheat could benefit from this technology by reducing the synthetic chemistry requirements for control of biotic stress. However, to date there are no Epichloë found naturally in symbiosis with modern wheat cultivars and establishing symbioses has been a challenge. Early work successfully involved Chinese spring-based wheat lines that contained alien chromosomes from wild grasses known to host Epichloë endophytes. One of the more successful associations was with TACBOW0011, which has a Leymus racemosus H chromosome substitution. However, there were several negative phenotypes associated with endophyte colonisation, which included stunting, delayed flowering, shrivelled seed, low germination and low endophyte transmission. Through traditional breeding methods, improvements in plant phenotypes compatible with Epichloë endophytes will be described. Progress includes improved plant height, reduced flowering delay, increased seed size and improved germination and endophyte transmission.

Facial aging results from intrinsic biologic decline and extrinsic environmental influences, producing progressive changes in skin structure, collagen integrity, and soft-tissue support. Botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNTA) is widely used to mitigate dynamic wrinkles, yet the long-term interplay between treatment frequency, age at initiation, and structural aging outcomes remains unclear. A 15-year in silico study was performed using digital twin facial models (AesthetiSIMTM) stratified by age at BoNTA initiation (20-30, 31-40, and 41-50 years) and injection frequency (biannual vs triannual). Six structural aging metrics were evaluated: forehead, glabellar, and lateral canthal wrinkle depth; collagen density; dermal thickness; and facial sag index (FSI). Measurements were taken at baseline, year 5, year 10, and year 15. Wrinkle depth decreased in all groups during the first five years, with early initiators on triannual regimens showing the largest short-term reductions (e.g., glabellar lines depth decreased from 0.833 to ~0.719mm). However, by year 15, wrinkle depths rebounded and converged across all cohorts (~1.0mm). Dermal thickness declined progressively, from ~1.89mm in the youngest cohort at baseline to ~1.75mm by year 15, with minimal differences between treatment frequencies. Collagen density fell steadily from ~ 56.048mg/cm2 at baseline to ~ 44.030-46.030mg/cm2 in all groups by year 15. FSI ranged from 0.73-1.20cm2 at baseline to 1.19-1.32cm2 at year 15. Across all measures, differences between age cohorts and injection frequencies were small and not sustained over time. Over a 15-year simulation, continuous BoNTA treatment produced measurable wrinkle reduction during the first five years, particularly in younger cohorts. However, beyond this early phase, no cumulative structural benefits were sustained. By year fifteen, wrinkle depth, dermal thickness, collagen density, and facial sag were virtually indistinguishable across all dosing schedules. These findings demonstrate that while BoNTA effectively softens dynamic lines in the short term, it does not alter the underlying trajectory of intrinsic aging. Long-term facial outcomes appear governed primarily by biological and cellular decline rather than by treatment frequency or age at initiation. Although digital twin modeling provides controlled and reproducible insights, these results must be validated through robust, long-term prospective studies involving diverse, multiethnic human populations to ensure their generalizability and clinical relevance. This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266 .

Abiotic and biotic stresses are major global challenges that reduce plant productivity, quality and sustainability worldwide. These stresses threaten global food security as the human population continues to grow. These stresses threaten global food supply in the current era of increasing population. Stresses negatively affect the normal growth and development of plants. They are mainly divided into 2 groups: abiotic and biotic stress. In particular, abiotic stresses lead to impaired growth and development of plants, disruption of the photosynthesis process and water regime. High temperatures lead to protein denaturation and decreased enzyme activity, while low temperatures lead to membrane damage. Abiotic stressors are one of the primary elements influencing the growth and production of major agricultural income crops. Environmental elements that cause physiological and biochemical pain in plants include salinity, drought, low temperature, heavy metals and chemical pollution. This article examines biotechnological approaches that use modern genetic engineering technologies such as RNA interference (RNAi) and CRISPR/Cas9 systems to improve plant resilience to abiotic stressors. RNAi plays a crucial role in activating plantdefence mechanisms by modulating the expression of stress-responsive genes, whereas CRISPR/Cas9 technology allows for the creation of new, stress-tolerant types by introducing precise alterations in the genome. These biotechnologies have significant potential to develop stable, high-yielding and stress-resilient crops. Overall, this review summarizes recent advances in RNAi and CRISPR/Cas9 technologies for improving plant resilience to abiotic stresses.

This study is aimed at evaluating the occurrence of onchocerciasis, as it relates to its diagnoses, prevalence, and treatment among humans in the Local Governments Areas of Kwara State, Nigeria. A 5-year (2016–2020) record of the occurrences of onchocerciasis (consisted of information from the entire state, gender of individuals, diagnostic methods and treatment procedures) was collected from the Ministry of health, Kwara State, following consents from the appropriate authorities. The data was adequately analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). It was retrieved from the data that skin snip and subsequent microscopic examination was the method used for the diagnosis of onchocerciasis in Kwara State. Out of the 14,237,834 persons examined over the 5-year period, 11,190,935 were positive for onchocerciasis representing 78.60% of the sample population. There was a statistically significant difference (p <0.05) in the prevalence of onchocerciasis between the different years and the different Local Government Areas. Females (with a prevalence of 81.29%) were 1.40 times (95% CI = 1.39 – 1.41) more likely to be infected with Onchocerca volvulus compared to males (having a prevalence of 75.68%) and the relationship was statistically significant (p = <0.001), with a chi square value of 66,580. The records also revealed that ivermectin (Mectizan™) was the drug used in the treatment of onchocerciasis in the State. This study revealed that Onchocerciasis is hyperendemic in Kwara State due to its high prevalence of 78.60%. The use of ivermectin in the treatment of onchocerciasis in Kwara State is adequate and will most likely bring about the eradication of the disease in the state in the nearest future. Inferences from this study to the general human population in Kwara State should be made with caution since humans tested for the disease were those suspected to be infected with O. volvulus.

The prevalence of autoimmune diseases in contemporary human populations poses a challenge for both medicine and evolutionary biology. This review explores how the ancestral human leukocyte antigen class II (HLA-II) haplotypes DR2-DQ6, DR4-DQ8 and DR3-DQ2 could play a central role in susceptibility to these diseases. We propose that these haplotypes, selected in historical contexts of high infectious pressure, may have been maintained because of their ability to elicit strong T-cell responses against pathogens; however, that antigenic promiscuity may be associated with an increased tendency toward immune hyperreactivity in modern environments. This hyperreactivity, involving proinflammatory cytokines including interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), could contribute to the breakdown of tolerance and the emergence of autoimmunity and related clinical phenomena (e.g., Long COVID, myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome and post-vaccination syndromes), although the evidence for the latter remains limited. Finally, we discuss how chronic infections, immunotherapies, vaccination, obesity and chronic physical stressors may exacerbate this susceptibility and consider the therapeutic implications of integrating HLA-II profiling into clinical practice.

Genotyping of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in Denmark and Sweden: Is the outbreak-linked genotype C a rodent-adapted genotype? Evidence from rodents and wastewater.

Implications of Codon Usage, tRNA Gene Redundancy and tRNA Gene Clustering in Experimental Models of Mistranslation.

Typhoid fever, a systemic disease caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi), remains a major global health problem, particularly in regions with poor sanitation. Despite advancements in diagnostics and treatment, S. Typhi continues to impose a heavy disease burden, worsened by the emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains. Chronic carriers, accounting for 2-5% of infections, play a crucial role in disease transmission. These carriers are often asymptomatic but intermittently shed bacteria, sustaining S. Typhi within the human population. Gallstones are strongly associated with the chronic carrier state, providing a niche for bacterial biofilm formation that enhances persistence and antibiotic resistance. Furthermore, long-term colonisation of the gallbladder is linked to an increased risk of gallbladder cancer, a condition common in typhoid-endemic areas. The pathogenesis of typhoid fever involves bacterial invasion of the gastrointestinal mucosa, evasion of innate immunity, and systemic spread. Biofilm formation on gallstones promotes long-term persistence within the gallbladder, while immune responses and intestinal microbiota dynamics influence disease progression and bacterial shedding. Current diagnostic methods, including culture and serology, often fall short in identifying carriers, necessitating the development of innovative approaches for effective surveillance and control. Treating chronic carriers remains difficult due to the biofilm-associated resistance of S. Typhi. Although cholecystectomy combined with targeted antimicrobial therapy shows promise, it does not guarantee the elimination of the carrier state. This review emphasises the importance of integrating strategies that combine improved diagnostic tools, targeted therapies, and public health interventions to reduce the burden of typhoid fever and its chronic carriers.

The COVID-19 pandemic prompted widespread public health interventions, including lockdowns and social distancing measures, which influenced microbial transmission dynamics. This study evaluates the evolution of the hospital incidence and spectral diversity of Haemophilus influenzae and Staphylococcus aureus associated with these measures using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry-based epidemiological surveillance. MALDI-TOF MS spectra analyses of routine clinical bacterial identifications were used as proxies for strain typing. Spectra from lockdown and reference periods were compared using unsupervised classification methods. A total of 251 main spectrum profiles of H. influenzae, 2079 main spectrum profiles of S. aureus for respiratory tract and blood samples, and 414 main spectrum profiles for skin samples of S. aureus were examined. The data were analyzed using hierarchical clustering and binary discriminant analysis. Spectral diversity of H. influenzae showed a transient shift, reverting to pre-lockdown patterns by 2021, whereas S. aureus exhibited a spectral shift that persisted post-lockdown. Clustering analyses revealed statistically significant grouping of lockdown strains, suggesting selection pressures due to containment measures. Social distancing measures were associated with modifications in bacterial population structures, with distinct post-lockdown recovery patterns. MALDI-TOF MS fingerprints proved to be a valuable tool for real-time epidemiological surveillance. This full-size experiment of social distancing highlights the complex interactions involving human behavior, bacterial ecology, and population dynamics and suggests different effects for different bacterial species.

Climate change today is no longer a question for the future. Climate change impacts not only human populations but also plant species, which are increasingly exposed to its negative effects. The increasing number of days of drought, the lack of precipitation and its unfavorable distribution are observed each year, which require adaptation. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a drought-tolerant species characterized by deep root system that enables it to withstand prolonged periods without precipitation. Additionally, it is a thermophilic crop and tolerates moderate increases in average temperature." There is no great tradition of its cultivation and use in Hungary, but it has been cultivated by the Iregszemcse Research Institute since the 1970s. In addition to the positive aspects of its cultivation, it also has good nutritional values, outperforming in some parameters the beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and peas (Pisum sativum L.) what are popular in Hungary. Its high protein and crude fibre content allows it to be used not only for human consumption but also for animal feed. The aim of this review is to describe the importance of chickpea and to identify the advantages and disadvantages of its cultivation.

Rotavirus alphagastroenteritidis (rotavirus) infects a broad range of hosts, including humans and various animal species. Its genome comprises 11 segments of double-stranded RNA, making it highly prone to genetic diversity through gene reassortment. Although rotavirus strains are typically host-specific, novel human strains with global impact often originate from interspecies transmission of animal rotaviruses. This review explores the critical role of interspecies transmission coupled with genetic reassortment in rotavirus adaptation to humans, contextualizing key studies and methodological advances. Central to this progress was the development of tools to analyse entire genomes and distinguish homologous from heterologous strains. We trace the evolution from RNA-RNA hybridisation to whole-genome sequencing, which underpins genotype constellation and sub-genotype phylogeny. A decade-long surveillance of the bovine-like G8 rotavirus in Vietnam offers a compelling model: for an animal rotavirus to become a successful human pathogen, it must replace its animal-derived genes with human-derived counterparts through reassortment. Retaining the animal-origin G8 VP7 gene is enabled by acquiring a compatible human VP4 gene (specifically P[8]) and DS-1-like backbone genes. Building on this model of reassortment-driven adaptation, our investigation into the unusual G1P[6] strain AU19, of wholly porcine origin, supports the hypothesis that the predominant human G1 rotavirus also evolved from a successful interspecies transmission event. Phylogenetic analysis suggests the ancestral human G1 gene emerged from a porcine rotavirus between 1915 and 1948, later reassorting with human strains to acquire Wa-like backbone genes, ultimately becoming a stable and dominant part of the human rotavirus population. In conclusion, genetic reassortment is a key mechanism transforming sporadic zoonotic events into sustained human-pathogens, although other factors remain to be fully defined. We conclude by highlighting key areas for further research.