HUFA-enriched Artemia Research Articles

Effects of n-3 HUFA-enriched Artemia on growth, biochemical response, skeletal morphology and stress resistance of Asian sea bass (Lates calcarifer) larvae reared at high temperature

Improving the growth and health status of marine fish larvae to adapt to climate change, is crucial for commercial hatchery production in tropical regions. This study evaluated the effects of dietary essential fatty acids used for Artemia enrichment on growth, biochemical responses, skeletal morphology, and stress resistance of Asian sea bass larvae, reared at high temperatures of 30 °C and 34 °C. Starting 11 days after hatch, Asian sea bass larvae, were fed Artemia, enriched with a commercial emulsion of n-3 HUFA for 14 days, at four concentrations (0, 100, 300, and 500 ppm), at two rearing temperatures (30 °C and 34 °C). The results showed that enriching Artemia with n-3 HUFA significantly improved the final weight and specific growth rate of the larvae fed n-3 HUFA enrichment at 300 ppm, at 34 °C (P < 0.05). Moreover, n-3 HUFA enriched Artemia significantly increased the essential fatty acids of the larvae in parallel with the dose of enrichment. Fish fed unenriched HUFA Artemia resulted in significantly higher ratio of skeletal deformities and lower survival rate following an air exposure test than the larvae fed the n-3 HUFA enriched diets. Overall, the findings showed that n-3 HUFA-enriched Artemia diets had benefits on body weight, specific growth rate, and stress tolerance in Asian sea bass fed HUFA enriched diets, even at high temperatures.

Growth and Survival of &lt;i&gt;Macrobrachium rosenbergii&lt;/i&gt; Postlarvae (De Man, 1879) Fed with EPA and DHA Enriched Artemia

Nutritional quality of Artemia used in prawn hatchery determines the quality of seed output and its performance in the culture. The present study aimed at determining the effect of n-3 HUFA enriched Artemia feeding on growth and survival of postlarvae (PL) of M. rosenbergii. The Artemia were fed with n-3 HUFA emulsions at 2 ml L-1 and samples were taken at 0, 12, 24, 36, 48 h for analyzing fatty acid profile. Results exhibited that 24 h enriched Artemia had a significantly higher level of EPA (3.76±0.11%) and DHA (2.29±0.01%) and it declined after 24 h. The PL of M. rosenbergii were fed with freshly hatched (T1), 12 h enriched (T2), 12 h un-enriched (T3), 24 h enriched (T4) and 24 h un-enriched (T5) Artemia during initial 10 days and reared for 40 days with commercial diet. The highest SGR (3.21% day-1) and survival (83.33 ± 3.34 %) was observed in T4 compared to other treatments. Data of the present study suggest that 24 h is an optimum duration for the enrichment of Artemia and feeding it for short duration enhanced the growth and survival of M. rosenbergii.

Feeding n 3 HUFA enriched Artemia to the larvae of the pink shrimp Farfantepenaeus paulensis increases stress tolerance and subsequent growth

There has been a considerable amount of work on the effects of Artemia enrichment on shrimp larvae. However, the effects on the subsequent growth performance have not been thoroughly investigated. From mysis I to eight day-old postlarvae (PL8), shrimp ( Farfantepenaeus paulensis ) were fed either newly hatched Artemia nauplii or Artemia enriched with an emulsion containing high levels of n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids (n-3 HUFA). Upon reaching PL8, shrimp were exposed to salinity and total ammonia (TAN) stress tests. Growth performance was assessed by further rearing shrimp for 40 days . Shrimp fed the enriched Artemia (named EG) had higher tolerance to both salinity and ammonia than those fed newly hatched Artemia (named CG). Weight of PL from EG was also higher than in CG. Higher levels of n-3 HUFA, especially 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3, were found in the enriched Artemia . In the postlarvae, higher levels of n-6 and n-3 HUFA were observed in EG, while PL from CG presented higher levels of 18:3n-3 and 18:4n-3. At the end of the nursery rearing, no differences in survival were observed, but weight was higher in EG (1.08 g) than in CG (0.90 g). The supplementation of n-3 HUFA during larviculture increases the tolerance of F. paulensis postlarvae to salinity and ammonia, and positively affects growth performance after a 40 day long rearing period.

Growth and survival of Hippocampus erectus (Perry, 1810) juveniles fed on Artemia with different HUFA levels

Survival during first months after birth is one of the bottlenecks for consolidating the seahorse farming industry. In this work, Artemia metanauplii enriched with two highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) rich commercial emulsions with different docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels (63% and 14% of total lipids), a vegetable oil with no DHA, and non-enriched Artemia as control, were used to feed 5-day-old juvenile Hippocampus erectus for 60 days. Enriched Artemia had similar levels of DHA (13% and 9%), despite great differences of DHA in the emulsions, with traces of DHA in non-enriched and vegetable oil enriched Artemia. More than 20% of DHA was found in 24 h starved juveniles fed both DHA-enriched treatments, similar to values in newly born juveniles, but those fed vegetable oil enriched Artemia or non-enriched Artemia had 5% of DHA. Total lipid and protein levels were similar in juveniles from the four treatments. The n-3/n-6 ratio was almost four-fold higher in seahorses fed DHA-enriched treatments compared to juveniles fed the non- enriched treatments. Survival of seahorses only partially reflected the DHA levels: it was lower in the vegetable oil treatment, similar in the seahorses fed Artemia with higher DHA and in the control treatment, and higher in seahorses fed the HUFA-enriched Artemia with lower DHA levels, although growth was similar in the two DHA-enriched Artemia treatments. Juvenile H. erectus seahorses perform better when they have at least 20% of DHA in their tissues, and these levels can be attained with no more than 14% of DHA in emulsions, eliminating the need for more expensive emulsions with higher DHA levels.

Physiological characteristics and stress resistance of great sturgeon (Huso huso) juveniles fed with vitamins C, E, and HUFA-enriched Artemia urmiana nauplii

This study was carried out to examine the effect of Artemia urmiana nauplii enriched with HUFA, and vitamins C and E on stress tolerance, hematocrit, and biochemical parameters of great sturgeon, Huso huso juveniles. Cod liver oil (EPA 18% and DHA 12%), ascorbyl-6-palmitate and alpha-tocopherol acetate were used as lipid, and vitamin C and E sources, respectively. Beluga juveniles at the stage of first feeding (69.7 +/- 5.9 mg body weight) were randomly divided into five treatments and three tanks were assigned to each diet. All fish groups were fed non-enriched Artemia for the initial 5 days and then fed enriched Artemia for 7 days. Juveniles were fed with Artemia enriched with HUFA + 20% vitamin C (C group); HUFA + 20% vitamin E-enriched Artemia nauplii (E group); HUFA + 20% vitamin C + 20% vitamin E (C and E group); HUFA without vitamins (HUFA) and non-enriched Artemia (control). After the period of enrichment, Juveniles were fed with Daphnia sp. from the 13th to the 40th day. At day 40, the fish were transferred directly from fresh water (0.5 ppt) to brackish water (6 ppt for 4 days and 12 ppt for 2 days) and warm water (from 27 to 33 degrees C) to evaluate juvenile resistance to salinity and thermal shocks. Moreover, all treatments were separately exposed to freshwater in tanks with the same capacity as used for osmotic and thermal tests (as fresh water control). The addition of vitamins C, E, and C + E to HUFA significantly increased fish resistance to 12 ppt salinity and temperature stress tests, whereas survival was not significantly different among challenges at 6 ppt. There was no significant difference in the hematocrit index under stress conditions. Enrichment had significant influence on plasma Na(+) level in the C group on the 4th day at 6 ppt. Na(+) and Ca(2+) concentrations in C, E, and C and E groups on the 1st day at 12 ppt, and Ca(2+) level in E group on the 2nd day at 12 ppt were lower than the other groups. The glucose level in the C and C and E groups was lower than the other treatments on the 1st day at 12 ppt and the 2nd day at 33 degrees C. Regardless of Artemia enrichment, plasma ions (Na(+), K(+), Ca(2+), and Mg(2+)) and glucose concentrations in fish exposed to salinity stress tests were higher than fish in fresh water. Glucose concentration in plasma also increased after 2 days at 33 degrees C. Although most of our results were not significantly different, the use of vitamins C, E, and HUFA in Artemia enrichment can improve Juveniles tolerance under stress conditions, and regardless of enrichment, these data show that beluga juveniles are partly sensitive to high salinity and temperature.

The effect of poly β-hydroxybutyrate on larviculture of the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii

In this study, we investigated the effect of poly β-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) on the culture performance of larvae of the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii and on the bacterial levels inside the larval gut. Instar II Artemia nauplii were cultured with or without PHB (5 g l − 1 ) and/or a lipid emulsion rich in highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) for 24 h. The effect of feeding PHB and/or HUFA-enriched Artemia nauplii on the performance of Macrobrachium larvae was investigated. Feeding larvae of the giant freshwater prawn with PHB-containing Artemia nauplii significantly increased survival and development of the larvae. Moreover, total bacterial counts and Vibrio spp . counts were found to be significantly lower in PHB-fed larvae when compared to control larvae, indicating that the PHB addition had a growth-inhibitory effect towards these potentially pathogenic microorganisms. Finally, a combination of PHB addition and lipid enrichment resulted in the best overall culture performance since it significantly improved larval survival as well as larval development. The optimal PHB concentration and formulation for bio-encapsulation into Artemia should be investigated further to increase the economical efficiency of Macrobrachium larval production.

Can umbrella-stage Artemia franciscana substitute enriched rotifers for Cobia ( Rachycentron canadum) fish larvae?

Appropriate food of suitable nutritional value is crucial for first-feeding stages of the larvae of cobia Rachycentron canadum, a very fast growing marine fish species. Best survival and growth results in cobia larviculture have been reported with a starter diet of HUFA-enriched rotifers and –as mouth size permits – followed by freshly-hatched and eventually HUFA-enriched Artemia nauplii. Using the smaller-sized Vietnam Artemia franciscana (AF) strain instead of the Great Salt Lake A. franciscana strain, it has been shown that the rotifer-feeding period could be shortened with 3 days, resulting in significant improvements in larval survival and growth. This study verified the possibility to feed umbrella-stage Artemia for further shortening and eventually completely substituting rotifer start feeding. The experiment was conducted in 200-L tanks and lasted 18 days. AF umbrella Artemia was used as sole feed during the whole rotifer feeding period (UAF), compared to the use of enriched rotifers for the first 2 days followed by AF-umbrella (ER + UAF) and the use of enriched rotifers as control (ER). The feeding incidence of UAF treatments was significantly lower ( P < 0.05) in the 1st feeding day, however, the ingestion and digestion of AF were evident. Growth and survival as well as deformities at day 18 post-hatching were not significantly different for all treatments ( P > 0.05). The viability of cobia larvae after exposure to high salinity stress was lower in the ER treatment at day 8 post-hatching, but higher at day 18 post-hatching ( P < 0.05). The ability of cobia larvae to ingest and digest AF umbrella at first feeding as well as the nutritional suitability of AF umbrella is discussed. The possibility to use umbrella-stage Artemia opens an opportunity to simplify the rearing protocol and to reduce production costs of cobia larviculture.

Produção de juvenis do linguado Paralichthys orbignyanus: efeito da duração do período de co-alimentação durante o desmame

O desmame, ou seja, a substituição do alimento vivo por alimento inerte é uma etapa crítica para a produção de alevinos de peixes marinhos. Este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar o efeito do período de co-alimentação (alimento vivo e inerte) sobre a sobrevivência, o crescimento e os custos de produção de juvenis do linguado Paralichthys orbignyanus. Durante o período de co-alimentação, os juvenis (idade inicial 32 dias) receberam Artemia enriquecida juntamente com ração. Foram testados três períodos de co-alimentação: 15, 20 e 25 dias, mais um grupo controle alimentado com Artemia enriquecida. Ao final do experimento (76 dias), os juvenis alimentados exclusivamente com Artemia enriquecida apresentaram sobrevivência (82%), peso (480±157mg) e comprimento (35,5±5,0mm) significativamente maiores (P&lt;0,05) que os juvenis alimentados com ração. Não houve diferença significativa (P&gt;0,05) no crescimento entre os juvenis alimentados com ração nos diferentes períodos, entretanto, um período maior de co-alimentação favoreceu a sobrevivência. Os resultados obtidos demonstram que os linguados alimentados exclusivamente com Artemia apresentam melhor performance do que aqueles alimentados com ração. Entretanto, o custo de produção quando a Artemia é substituída por ração aos 58 dias de vida é menor do que quando o desmame é realizado mais cedo ou quando os alevinos são alimentados apenas com Artemia.

Delivery of HUFA, probionts and biomedicine through bioencapsulated Artemia as a means to enhance the growth and survival and reduce the pathogenesity in shrimp Penaeus monodon postlarvae

One of the major problems in the shrimp culture industry is the difficulty in producing high-quality shrimp larvae. In larviculture, quality feeds containing a high content of highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) and ingredients that stimulate stress and disease resistance are essential to produce healthy shrimp larvae. In the present study, Penaeus monodon postlarvae (PL15) were fed for 25 days on an unenriched Artemia diet (control; A) or on a diet of Artemia enriched with either HUFA-rich liver oil of the trash fish Odonus niger (B), probionts [Lactobacillus acidophilus (C1) or yeast-Saccharomyces cerevisiae (C2)] or biomedicinal herbal products (D) that have anti-stress, growth-promoting and anti-microbial characteristics. P. monodon postlarvae fed unenriched Artemia exhibited the lowest weight gain (227.9 ± 8.30 mg) and specific growth rate (9.95 ± 0.05%), while those fed the HUFA-enriched Artemia (B) exhibited the highest weight gain and specific growth rate (362.34 ± 12.56 mg and 11.77 ± 0.08%, respectively). At the end of the 25-day rearing experiment, the shrimp postlarvae (PL40) were subjected to a salinity stress study. At both low and high (0 and 50‰) salinities, the group fed the control diet (A) experienced the highest cumulative mortality indices (CMI) 935.7 ± 2.1 and 1270.7 ± 3.1, respectively. Those fed diet D showed the lowest stress-induced mortality, and CMI were reduced by 31.1 and 32.3% under conditions of low and high salinity stress, respectively. A 10-day disease challenge test was conducted with the P. monodon postlarvae (PL40–PL50) by inoculating the shrimp with the pathogen Vibrio harveyi at the rate of 105–107 CFU/ml in all rearing tanks. P. monodon postlarvae fed probiont-encapsulated Artemia diets (C1 and C2) exhibited the highest survival (94.3 and 82.3%, respectively) and lowest pathogen load (V. harveyi) in hepatopancreas (5.2 × 102 ± 9.0 × 10 and 4.6 × 102 ± 9.0 × 10 CFU g−1, respectively) and muscle (2.0 × 102 ± 6 × 10 and 1.7 × 102 ± 8.6 × 10 CFU g−1, respectively) tissues. The shrimp that were fed the unenriched Artemia (Control; A) showed the lowest survival (26.33%) and highest bacterial load in the hepatopancreas (1.0 × 105 ± 5 × 103 CFU g−1) and muscle (3.6 × 104 ± 6 × 102 CFU g−1). The shrimp fed the herbal product (D)-enriched Artemia also exhibited enhanced survival and reduced V. harveyi load in the tissues tested compared to the control diet (A) group. The results are discussed in terms of developing a quality larval feed to produce healthy shrimp larvae.

Larviculture output and stress tolerance of Farfantepenaeus paulensis postlarvae fed Artemia containing different fatty acids

Fatty acid nutrition is known to play a vital role on survival, growth and stress tolerance of aquatic animals. In this study, we assessed whether the enrichment of Artemia franciscana (GSL strain, USA) with emulsions containing different fatty acid profiles would affect larviculture output and tolerance to salinity, temperature and total ammonia (TAN) of the shrimp Farfantepenaeus paulensis. From mysis I up to postlarvae 10 (PL10), three replicate groups of shrimp were reared in 40-l tanks at an initial density of 60 l − 1 . They were fed one of the following diets: (1) newly hatched Artemia nauplii; (2) Artemia metanauplii enriched with a saturated fatty acid (SFA) emulsion (ICES enrichment emulsion 0/–/C); and (3) Artemia metanauplii enriched with an emulsion containing 50% n − 3 highly unsaturated fatty acids ( n − 3 HUFA) (ICES emulsion 50/0.6/C). Newly hatched Artemia nauplii were enriched for 24 h with two doses of 0.3-g emulsion per liter added at 12 h intervals. Larval feeding was carried out daily at 10:00 and 22:00 hours. Survival and total length (TL; from the tip of rostrum to the tip of the telson) were estimated. Tolerance to salinity, temperature and total ammonia (TAN; NH 4 + + NH 3) were assessed by exposing PL10 to 10‰ salinity for 1 h, 16–17 °C for 1 h and increasing total ammonia levels (0, 15, 30, 45 60 and 90 mg TAN l − 1 ) for 24 h, respectively. Tolerance to salinity and temperature were expressed as cumulative stress indexes (CSI; sum of cumulative mortalities over 1 h), while tolerance to ammonia was estimated as the median lethal concentration for 50% of the population during 24 h (LC 50). All data were subjected to ANOVA and Tukey's test, except LC 50 values, which were compared graphically. Survival of shrimp fed n − 3 HUFA-enriched Artemia was significantly higher than in the other treatments. TL of PL1 was not significantly different, but PL10 fed Artemia nauplii were significantly longer. No differences were found in terms of tolerance to salinity and temperature. PL10 fed n − 3 HUFA enriched Artemia presented a higher tolerance to ammonia. Results indicate that feeding n − 3 HUFA-enriched Artemia to F. paulensis larvae increases survival and tolerance to ammonia, which may be advantageous under adverse rearing conditions.

Effects of different food items on the culture of the mysid shrimp Mysidopsis almyra (Crustacea: Pericaridea) in a static water system.

The effects of several food items on larvae production and survival ofthe mysid Mysidopsis almyra were compared. A total of sixdiets were used. The diets were: 1) phytoplankton (Isochrysisgalbana), 2) an artificial diet (Liqualife®, Cargill,Minneapolis, MN), 3) a mixed diet composed of both zooplankton (mostlycopepods)and phytoplankton, 4) 750 mg g−1 of HUFA enrichedArtemia nauplii and 250 mgg−1 of the artificial diet, 5) newly hatchedArtemia nauplii (24-hour incubation at 28°C) and 6) newly hatched Artemia naupliienriched with HUFA (SELCO®, INVE Inc., Ghent, Belgium) for 12 hours. Mysidsfed HUFA enriched Artemia nauplii (diet 6) had the highestproduction and survival rates, although not significant (P > 0.05), comparedto diets 3, 4 and 5, while the phytoplankton and the artificial diet hadsignificantly lower production and survival rates (p > 0.05).

Lipid classes and their content of n -3 highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) in Artemia franciscana after hatching, HUFA-enrichment and subsequent starvation

The distribution of n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) over the major neutral and polar lipid classes was determined for two predominant types of live food used in the larviculture of marine fish and shrimp, i.e. freshly hatched and HUFA-enriched Artemia, and compared with data reported in the literature for wild copepods, representing the natural diet of these larvae. Lipid class composition and their content of n-3 HUFA, particularly eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3), were assessed in freshly hatched, HUFA-enriched and subsequently starved Artemia franciscana. The n-3 HUFA enrichment was based on feeding Artemia a lipid emulsion in which either fatty acid ethyl esters (EE, diluted with olive oil) or triacylglycerol (TAG) provided a level of 30% n-3 HUFA. Enrichment of Artemia with either type of the lipid emulsions resulted in an increase of total lipid content from 20.0 to 28.2–28.7% of dry matter mainly due to the accumulation of neutral lipid, primarily TAG (from 82 to 158 mg g−1 dry wt in freshly hatched and 24-h enriched Artemia). Enriched brine shrimp utilized up to 27–30% of their TAG content during 72 h of starvation at 12 °C. The absolute tissue concentrations of polar lipids remained constant at 71 to 79 mg g−1 dry wt throughout the enrichment and subsequent starvation. The level of n-3 HUFA increased drastically during enrichment from 6.3% of total fatty acids (8.2 mg g−1 dry wt) in freshly hatched nauplii to between 20.4 and 21.8% (40.4 to 43.2 mg g−1 dry wt) in 24-h enriched Artemia and was not significantly affected by the source of n-3 HUFA. During starvation, 18:0, 20:4n-6 and 20:5n-3 were retained, whereas 18:4n-3, 22:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 were specifically catabolized. The major polar lipids, phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and phosphatidylcholine (PC), of freshly hatched Artemia showed very low levels of DHA ( 64% of the EPA and >91% of the total DHA present. This is in sharp contrast with the high levels of n-3 HUFA, in particular DHA, in the polar lipid fraction reported for wild copepods. The contrasting distribution of DHA in the neutral and polar lipid fractions of enriched brine shrimp compared to the natural diet may influence the efficacy of this essential fatty acid for marine fish larvae in aquaculture systems.

Effects of feeding (?-3) HUFA-enriched Artemia during a progressively increasing period on the larviculture of freshwater prawns

Larvae of the freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) were reared to post-larvae in a closed recirculation system. Six treatments were designed where freshly-hatched Artemia nauplii were first given to the larvae for 3, 7, 11, 15, 17 and 25 days according to the treatment. After that (ω-3) HUFA-enriched Artemia were given until the 28th day at which time the test was terminated and evaluated. The requirement for (ω-3) Highly Unsaturated Fatty Acids (HUFA) for the larval stages of M. rosenbergii was confirmed by this experiment. Moreover, the longer the period of feeding on (ω-3) HUFA-enriched Artemia nauplii, the better the results in terms of growth, metamorphosis rate, survival and stress resistance.

The effect of low HUFA- and high HUFA-enriched Artemia, fed at different feeding levels, on growth, survival, tissue fatty acids and liver histology of Clarias gariepinus larvae

The present study investigated the effect of two diets containing different levels of HUFA, given at three different feeding levels on the growth performance, fatty acid composition and liver structure of African catfish, Clarias gariepinus (Burchell), larvae. The larvae were raised at 27.5°C until a final weight of 50 mg. The fish were fed Artemia which was enriched with an emulsion low in n−3 HUFA (coconut-oil) or high in n−3 HUFA (SELCO). Both feed types had similar protein and ash levels, but differed mainly in their fatty acid composition. The level of the n−3 HUFA in SELCO-enriched Artemia was three times higher (14.5 mg/g dry weight) than in the coconut-oil-enriched Artemia (5 mg/g dry weight). Feed type did not affect growth or survival. Dietary HUFA levels affected the fatty acid composition of the fish but this feed type effect was statistically not significant. The specific growth rate ranged, depending upon the feeding level, from 17 to 52% body weight·day −1 and survival rate varied between 79 and 89%. The total amount of food given to the fish did affect significantly the dry matter content, tissue fatty acid composition and the liver lipid content in the fish. At the start of exogenous feeding, docosahexaenoic acid (22:6 n−3) was the most abundant fatty acid in the fish (17.1 mg/g dry weight or 28.2% of total fatty acids), but its level decreased to 2–4 mg/g dry weight at the end of the experiment. Fatty acid retention percentages revealed the capacity to synthesize HUFA. Feeding the larvae at optimal feeding level or higher resulted in accumulation of lipid in the liver (>40% of the hepatocyte volume consisted of lipid). Overall, feeding level had a more pronounced effect than feed type.

The nutritional value of Artemia and Tigriopus californicus (Baker) for two Pacific mysid species, Metamysidopsis elongata (Holmes) and Mysidopsis intii (Holmquist)

The nutritional values of four diets, (1) newly hatched Artemia, (2) Artemia enriched with highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA), (3) HUFA-enriched Artemia, supplemented with lipid microspheres, and (4) HUFA-enriched Artemia, supplemented with lipid microspheres and the harpacticoid copepod Tigriopus californicus (Baker), were assessed for the epibenthic mysid species Metamysidopsis elongata (Holmes) and Mysidopsis intii (Holmquist). These diets differed in fatty acid composition as determined by gas liquid chromatography. Mysid survival, growth, and the proportion of females brooding offspring were not significantly different among dietary treatments. In contrast, the number of viable offspring produced by both mysid species was greatly improved by adding lipid microspheres and T. californicus to a diet of HUFA-enriched Artemia, probably because both lipid microspheres and T. californicus were rich sources of the fatty acids 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3, compared with that of Artemia diets alone.