Household Water Samples Research Articles

Dietary Iodine Intake and Sources among Residents in Zhejiang Province 10 Years after Reducing Iodine Concentration in Iodized Salt.

We aimed to assess dietary iodine intake and sources in Zhejiang Province a decade after a reduction in iodine concentration in iodized salt. Three-day 24 h dietary recall and household weighing were used, complemented by "Chinese Food Composition" data. Household water and salt samples were collected from 5890 residents and analyzed. Differences in iodized salt consumption rates were observed across the following regions: inland (84.20%), subcoastal (67.80%), and coastal (37.00%) areas. The median (P25, P75) iodine concentration in water and diet were 2.2 (0.9, 4.0) μg/L and 142.05 (58.94, 237.11) μg/d, respectively, with significant regional differences in dietary concentration (inland [185.61 μg/d], subcoastal [153.42 μg/d], and coastal [75.66 μg/d]). Males (149.99 μg/d) and iodized salt consumers (191.98 μg/d) had a significantly higher dietary iodine intake than their counterparts. Regions were ranked as follows based on the proportions of individuals meeting the recommended dietary iodine intake: inland (69.40%), subcoastal (56.50%), and coastal (34.10%) areas. Dietary sources included salt (48.54%), other foods (32.06%), drinking water (8.84%), laver (4.82%), kelp (3.02%), and other seafood (2.32%). The qualified iodized salt consumption rate was significantly lower than the national standard. Zhejiang Province should continue implementing measures to control iodine deficiency through salt iodization, education efforts, and increasing the qualified iodized salt consumption rate.

The influence of seasonality and multiple water source use on household water service levels

Universal access to safely managed drinking water (SMDW) is important for human health, well-being, and development. It is reflected in Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6. In rural areas of low- and middle-income countries, 1.9 billion people lack access to SMDW. Multiple water source use and seasonal source switching may negate health and development gains from SMDW. Hence, achieving SDG 6 requires a better understanding of how these factors relate to household service levels. We explored this using data from 37,105 household surveys and 6395 household drinking water samples collected from rural areas of 14 low- and middle-income countries (Ethiopia, Ghana, Honduras, India, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe). A different primary water source was used in the rainy and dry seasons by 10% of households; seasonal source switching was most common in Kenyan households (29%) and least common in Zambian households (3%). Twenty-three percent of households used a secondary water source, and 37% of these secondary sources were unimproved (e.g., unprotected dug wells and surface water). Sixty-nine percent of household water samples contained E. coli. In 11 of 14 countries studied, fecally contaminated water was the water service parameter preventing households from having SMDW free from fecal contamination at the point of use. Overall, 7% of households had access to SMDW free from contamination at the point of use. Our results confirm that the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene (JMP) substantively overstate the population benefiting from safely managed drinking water, and their reporting statistics should be interpreted with caution. Seasonal source switching and secondary water source use have an important influence in some countries and should be accounted for in monitoring and programming activities.

Identifying predictors of E. coli in rural household water in sub-Saharan Africa using elimination regression.

Exposure to fecally contaminated drinking water contributes to the global disease burden, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). We used cross-sectional data and elimination regression analysis to examine factors influencing E. coli contamination in household drinking water samples from 4,499 rural households in nine countries in SSA (Malawi, Mozambique, and Zambia in Southern Africa; Ghana, Mali, and Niger in Western Africa; and Kenya, Rwanda, and Tanzania in Eastern Africa). The proportion of household water samples containing E. coli was 71%, ranging from 45% (Malawi) to 89% (Tanzania). Pooled and multi-country predictive logistic regression models showed that using an unimproved-type water source, the absence of a community water committee, and domestic animal ownership were significantly associated with household drinking water contamination. Household water treatment and storage practices, sanitation and hygiene practices, and payment for drinking water were not significantly associated with E. coli contamination in any model. The season was a significant predictor of E. coli in the pooled model; samples collected in the rainy season were 2.3 [2.0, 2.7] times as likely to be contaminated with E. coli. Practitioners and policymakers should prioritize implementing piped on-plot water services, establishing effective local water source management structures, and incorporating animal husbandry practices into water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions.

Drinking water contamination potential and associated factors among households with under-five children in rural areas of Dessie Zuria District, Northeast Ethiopia.

More than half of the 700 million people worldwide who lack access to a safe water supply live in sub-Saharan Africa, including Ethiopia. Globally, approximately 2 billion people use drinking water sources that are contaminated with fecal matter. However, little is known about the relationship between fecal coliforms and determinants in drinking water. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the potential for contamination of drinking water and its associated factors in households with children under 5 years of age in Dessie Zuria district in northeastern Ethiopia. The water laboratory was conducted based on the American Public Health Association guidelines for water and wastewater assessment using a membrane filtration technique. A structured and pre-tested questionnaire was used to identify factors associated with the potential for contamination of drinking water in 412 selected households. A binary logistic regression analysis was performed to determine the factors associated with the presence or absence of fecal coliforms in drinking water, with a 95% confidence interval (CI) and a value of p ≤ 0.05. The overall goodness of the model was tested using the Hosmer-Lemeshow test, and the model was fit. A total of 241 (58.5%) households relied on unimproved water supply sources. In addition, approximately two-thirds 272 (66.0%) of the household water samples were positive for fecal coliform bacteria. Water storage duration ≥3 days (AOR = 4.632; 95% CI: 1.529-14.034), dipping method of water withdrawal from a water storage tank (AOR = 4.377; 95% CI: 1.382-7.171), uncovered water storage tank at control (AOR = 5.700; 95% CI: 2.017-31.189), lack of home-based water treatment (AOR = 4.822; 95% CI: 1.730-13.442), and unsafe household liquid waste disposal methods (AOR = 3.066; 95% CI: 1.706-8.735) were factors significantly associated with the presence of fecal contamination in drinking water. Fecal contamination of water was high. The duration of water storage, the method of water withdrawal from the storage container, covering of the water storage container, the presence of home-based water treatment, and the method of liquid waste disposal were factors for fecal contamination in drinking water. Therefore, health professionals should continuously educate the public on proper water use and water quality assessment.

Physicochemical and microbial quality of drinking water in slum households of Hawassa City, Ethiopia

Drinking water quality and its public health effect are ignored in urban slum households of Ethiopia. The aim of this study was to assess physicochemical and microbial quality of drinking water stored in slum households of Hawassa City, Ethiopia. Cross-sectional study was conducted and a total of 120 water samples were collected from 60 households (60 tap, 60 households) to test the quality. Wagtech Potalab + PTW − 1000 was used to test the parameters. Physicochemical parameters—temperature, turbidity, pH and residual free chlorine were measured. Presence of total and faecal coliform bacteria was tested using the Wagtech membrane filtration procedure. Heads of the households were asked about the case of diarrhoeal diseases in any of their family members. Data were statistically analysed and compared with World Health Organization (WHO) standards. Paired t test was used to analyse the mean difference between tap and household water samples. Binary logistic regression was used to investigate any significant association between presence of faecal coliform in the water samples and occurrence of diarrhoeal diseases. Eight (13.3%) tap and 28 (46.7%) household water samples were found positive for total coliform; five (8.3%) tap and 19 (31.7%) household water samples were positive for faecal coliform. Eleven (18.3%) household water samples had faecal coliform 10–100 CFU/100 ml, which falls under high-risk category based on WHO standard. The paired t test (p < 0.05) showed significant mean difference between faecal coliform count of the tap and household water samples. The binary logistic regression analysis implied the odds for occurrence of diarrhoeal disease is 17.33 more in households with positive faecal coliform results (p < 0.05). It is concluded that there was a significant level of faecal contamination of drinking water at the household level. Therefore, it is recommended that continuous health education on drinking water handling should be given to slum households.

High Prevalence of Chemical and Microbiological Drinking Water Contaminants in Households with Infants Enrolled in a Birth Cohort-Piura, Peru, 2016.

Chemical and microbiological drinking water contaminants pose risks to child health but are not often evaluated concurrently. At two consecutive visits to 96 households in Piura, Peru, we collected drinking water samples, administered health and exposure questionnaires, and collected infant stool samples. Standard methods were used to quantify heavy metals/metalloids, pesticides, and Escherichia coli concentrations in water samples. Stool samples were assayed for bacterial, viral, and parasitic enteropathogens. The primary drinking water source was indoor piped water for 70 of 96 households (73%); 36 households (38%) stored drinking water from the primary source in containers in the home. We found high prevalence of chemical and microbiological contaminants in household drinking water samples: arsenic was detected in 50% of 96 samples, ≥ 1 pesticide was detected in 65% of 92 samples, and E. coli was detected in 37% of 319 samples. Drinking water samples that had been stored in containers had higher odds of E. coli detection (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 4.50; 95% CI: 2.04-9.95) and pesticide detection (OR: 6.55; 95% CI: 2.05-21.0) compared with samples collected directly from a tap. Most infants (68%) had ≥ 1 enteropathogen detected in their stool. Higher odds of enteropathogen infection at the second visit were observed among infants from households where pesticides were detected in drinking water at the first visit (aOR: 2.93; 95% CI: 1.13-7.61). Results show concurrent risks of exposure to microbiological and chemical contaminants in drinking water in a low-income setting, despite high access to piped drinking water.

Effect of Seasonal Changes on Groundwater Quality in Sub-Urban Ibadan, Southwest Nigeria

The purpose of the study is to assess the levels of some physicochemical parameters and heavy metals in water sources and quantify their possible impact. Household water samples that include well water (n = 80) and treated municipal water (n = 3) collected from March 2019 to March 2020 were analysed for 11 physicochemical properties using instrumentation and classical methods. The estimated water parameters were first compared with standard values for drinking water and then analysed spatially using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) interpolation in ArcGIS software. Water quality indices were also computed as function of the potability of the water sampled. Through this study, it was found that the well water samples were slightly acidic (pH 6.7+0.61) while the concentration of nitrate (59.38 mg/L), sulphate (294.06 mg/L), cadmium (0.03 mg/L) and lead (0.13 mg/L) were above permissible limits in drinking water - 50 mg/L, 100 mg/L, 0.003 mg/L and 0.01 mg/L, respectively. The results indicates that more than 92% of the well water samples were unfit for drinking due to elevated concentrations of nitrate, sulphate, cadmium and lead. Findings from this study suggest prioritisation of clean water provision to residents in the affected communities to avert public health emergency.

Diarrheagenic toxins in stool correlate to drinking water from improved water sources in Ethiopia

Escherichia coli toxins are the most common types found in association with disease in E. coli bacteria. They are found in nearly all pathogenic E. coli bacteria either released from the bacteria or E. coli cell or both transmitted via the orofecal route. The present study evaluated the relationship between E. coli toxins detected in ‘improved’ drinking water sources and toxins found in stool samples from individuals with diarrhea that consumed the water. Improved water is defined as the water source, by the nature of their construction or through active intervention, are protected from external contamination, particularly with fecal matter. A correlation between toxins in the water with toxins in the stools suggests that contaminated drinking water is a potential infection source. Stool samples were collected from people with diarrhea (248 stool samples) and their drinking water at their home (248 water samples). Only diarrhea patients that reported use of improved drinking water sources as per the definition of the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme were included in the study. E. coli isolates were analysed for 5 major toxins (enteroaggregative E. coli heat-stable enterotoxin 1 (EAST1), heat-stable enterotoxin a (Sta); shiga-like toxin 1 (Stx1), shiga-like toxin 2 (Stx2), and heat-liable enterotoxin (LT)) using a multiplex polymerase chain reaction (mPCR). Descriptive statistics, Chi-square (χ2) test, Fisher's exact, logistic regression, and bivariate Pearson correlation coefficients were used to examine the association and correlation of toxins in the drinking water with those in the stool samples. Of the 248 households, 24% had positive results in both water and stool samples, 63% [Confidence Interval (CI): 55–67%] had positive results in water samples only and 46% [CI: 37- 49%] were found to be positive for toxins in stool samples only. EAST1 was the most frequently detected from the 5 toxins evaluated, with 33% in the water and 38% in the stool. ESAT1, Stx1, and LT toxins were the most commonly found contaminants in water from improved water sources. The prevalence of toxins in household water samples was higher than that obtained from yard connections (51%) and piped systems connected to public stands (42%), compared to the other types of water sources. Both a positive correlation (P < 0.05; r = 0.412) and statistically significant association (P=0.0001) was found between the toxins in the water and toxins in the stool. EAST1 in the stool was significantly correlated with overall toxins in water (r = 0.378) and increased the probability of the occurrence of EAST1 in water (odds ratio (OR)=4.96, 95% CI, 2.81–8.74; P=0.000). E. coli toxins have been found to be effective biomarkers for detecting possible drinking water contamination in households with diarrhea. Long-term planning for the protection and/or treatment of stored household drinking water to ensure toxins free water at the point of use are required.

Household Water Is the Main Source of Iodine Consumption among Women in Hargeisa, Somaliland: A Cross-Sectional Study

BackgroundIodine status surveys of women in Somaliland present widely conflicting results. Previous research indicates elevated concentrations of iodine (IQR 18–72 μg/L) in groundwater used for drinking and cooking, but the relation with iodine intake is not well characterized. ObjectivesWe aimed to investigate the contributions of household water iodine concentration (WIC), breastfeeding, total fluid intake, hydration levels, and urine volume on urinary iodine concentration (UIC) and excretion (UIE) over a 24-h period and to define iodine status from iodine intake estimates and median UIC, normalized to a mean urine volume of 1.38 L/d (hydration adjusted). MethodsThe study sample comprised 118 nonpregnant, healthy women aged 15–69 y. All participants resided in Hargeisa, and 27 were breastfeeding. Data collection consisted of a 24-h urine collection, a 24-h fluid intake diary, a beverage frequency questionnaire, and a structured recall interview. We measured UIC and WIC in all urine and in 49 household water samples using the Sandell-Kolthoff reaction. ResultsWIC ranged between 3 and 188 μg/L, with significant median differences across the water sources and city districts (P < 0.003). Nonbreastfeeding women were borderline iodine sufficient [hydration-adjusted median urinary iodine concentration (mUIC) 109 μg/L; 95% CI: 97, 121 μg/L], whereas breastfeeding women showed a mild iodine deficiency (73 μg/L; 95% CI: 54, 90 μg/L). There were strong correlations (ρ: 0.50–0.69, P = 0.001) between WIC and UIC, with iodine from household water contributing more than one-half of the total iodine intake. Multivariate regression showed hydration and breastfeeding status to be the main predictors of UIC. ConclusionsIodine from household water is the main contributor to total iodine intake among women in Hargeisa, Somaliland. Variation in female hydration and spatial and temporal WIC may explain diverging mUIC between studies. Water sources at the extremes of low and high iodine concentrations increase the risk of subpopulations with insufficient or more than adequate iodine intake.

The Role of Hygiene and Sanitation to the Escherichia coli Contamination in Drinking Water in Depok City, Indonesia

BACKGROUND: Drinking water is a vital aspect in human life. The quality of drinking water should be monitored to ensure public from any health effects caused by contaminated water. Escherichia coli (E. coli) is one of the indicators of fecal contamination should not be present in drinking water (0 cfu/100 ml). However, poor hygiene and sanitation contributes to E. coli contamination in drinking water, particularly in developing countries. AIM: We investigated the household hygiene and sanitation factors and the relationship with E. coli detection in the household drinking water. METHODS: A cross-sectional study design was conducted to collect the data from three districts in the Depok city, that is, Sawangan, Bojongsari, and Cipayung. A total of 300 houses and the corresponding drinking water samples were collected during August–September 2019. E. coli was determined as microbiological indicator using total plate count method. RESULTS: The results showed that E. coli was detected in 174 (58%) of household water samples. The water container condition (OR = 2,60; CI 95%: 1.18–5.71) and the hand washing practice with soap (OR = 1,65; CI 95%: 1.04–2.62) were significantly correlated with the presence of E. coli in the water samples. CONCLUSIONS: The condition of the water container was the most dominant factors which contributed to E. coli content in the household drinking water.

Assessment of Household Water Quality from Selected Storage Vessels used in a South-Western Rural Community, Nigeria

Water is an important requirement for life but its contamination via natural and anthropogenic activities is of great concern. This study determined some physicochemical parameters of drinking water from the main source (borehole), and selected storage vessels in Abimbola, Ayedaade Local Government Area, Osun State, Nigeria. About 10 household water samples were collected randomly from the 70 households in the village. The major water storage vessels used by the villagers were clay pots. Only about one-fifth of the households used plastic containers. All the physico-chemical parameters assessed were within permissible limits of the World Health Organization and Standards Organization of Nigeria’s drinking water guidelines except for Lead and nitrite. Furthermore, water stored in clay pots had significantly higher levels of Nitrate (p=0.04), Nitrite (p=0.04), Sulphate (p=0.04), Lead (p=0.03), Iron (p=0.04), and Manganese (p=0.04) than those stored in plastic containers. Results suggest that the type of storage vessels used could influence the physicochemical quality of the water stored in them. Also, basic water quality monitoring needs to be conducted routinely to ascertain and maintain high quality water supply per time.

Bacteriological and physico-chemical quality of household drinking water in Kisii Town, Kisii County, Kenya

Water is a basic human need which is required in many operations especially in households. However, this essential commodity in most cases does not meet the generally accepted safety standards. The study was designed to investigate the physico-chemical and bacteriological quality of drinking water used in households in Kisii town, Kenya. Analytical cross-sectional study was conducted to obtain information concerning household drinking water quality and safety. Stratified random sampling was used to obtain 422 drinking water samples at the point of consumption from the 4 zones of Kisii town for analysis. From the study it was revealed that TDS and electrical conductivity of the analyzed water samples were within the recommended standards of less than 1000 ppm and 1500 μSCM−1 respectively. Further, it was found that 69.4% of the samples had pH range of between 6.5-8.5, 91.9% had turbidity of less than 5NTU, 3.8% had temperature below 15 °C and 31.2% of the chlorinated samples had chlorine residue above 0.2 ppm. In terms of bacteriological analysis, 39.3% of the samples were contaminated with total coliforms and 17.5% with E. coli. The main finding from the study was that the household water samples were contaminated with bacteria and unfit for human consumption because both total coliforms and E. coli exceeded the recommended Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) and WHO standards. Therefore, public health officers should not only collect water samples from sources but also from households regularly to ascertain its quality and provide water safety promotion education to the general public. There was a strong relationship between bacterial contamination and temperature as well as chlorine residue. The study recommends Gusii Water and Sanitation Company (GWASCO) whose treatment and distribution capacity is expected to increase 4.5 times the current capacity to improve on their chlorine dosage at the treatment plant to ensure a minimum chlorine residue of 0.2 ppm at the household and community taps.

Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Practices Impact Pathogen Exposure in Remote, Rural, Unpiped Communities.

Household water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) practices in remote, rural, and unpiped communities are likely to impact exposure to pathogens beyond the fecal–oral transmission routes that are typically prioritized in WASH interventions. We studied 43 homes in two remote, rural, unpiped communities in Alaska to evaluate seasonal water haul, water sources, water quality, and water reuse, as well as greywater and human waste disposal over 1 year. Hauled quantities of water reportedly ranged from 3.0 to 5.4 gallons per capita per day (gpcd) depending on the community and season. Natural, untreated water sources contributed 0.5–1.1 gpcd to household water availability. Reported quantities of water hauled were significantly correlated with total water storage capacity in the home. Total coliforms were detected in 30–60% of stored household water samples from treated and untreated sources, and total coliform counts were significantly higher in specific sources and during specific seasons. Exposure to pathogens during periods of low water access, from untreated water reuse, from greywater disposal and from human waste disposal are important pathways of disease transmission in these remote, rural, unpiped communities. We discuss intermediate steps that can be taken at the household and community levels to interrupt exposure pathways before piped infrastructure is installed. This model of examining specific household practices to determine transmission routes can be applied to other remote communities or unique conditions to aid in the recommendation of targeted WASH interventions.

Assessment of microbiological and physico-chemical characterıstics of water samples in households of Bangalore city, Karnataka, India

Abstract Access to safe drinking water is one of the basic human rights and is essential to human health. The present study investigated the concentration of pathogenic microbial flora and health risk in drinking water samples in households of Bangalore city, Karnataka, India. The samples were analysed for microbiological and physico-chemical parameters. In this study, most probable number and heterotrophic plate count were used to assess the microbial load. The results of the study show that most of the household water samples were contaminated with the presence of coliform bacteria. The dominant bacterial species are Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Klebsiella and Enterobacter. The bacteria belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae showed maximum occurrence in water samples. The overall results of the study showed that the consumption of such contaminated drinking water at the end-user point may cause potential health hazards to the inhabitants.

Source attribution of community-acquired cases of Legionnaires' disease-results from the German LeTriWa study; Berlin, 2016-2019.

IntroductionSources of infection of most cases of community-acquired Legionnaires’ disease (CALD) are unknown.ObjectiveIdentification of sources of infection of CALD.SettingBerlin; December 2016–May 2019.ParticipantsAdult cases of CALD reported to district health authorities and consenting to the study; age and hospital matched controls.Main outcome measurePercentage of cases of CALD with attributed source of infection.MethodsAnalysis of secondary patient samples for monoclonal antibody (MAb) type (and sequence type); questionnaire-based interviews, analysis of standard household water samples for Legionella concentration followed by MAb (and sequence) typing of Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 (Lp1) isolates; among cases taking of additional water samples to identify the infectious source as appropriate; recruitment of control persons for comparison of exposure history and Legionella in standard household water samples. For each case an appraisal matrix was filled in to attribute any of three source types (external (non-residence) source, residential non-drinking water (RnDW) source (not directly from drinking water outlet), residential drinking water (RDW) as source) using three evidence types (microbiological results, cluster evidence, analytical-comparative evidence (using added information from controls)).ResultsInclusion of 111 study cases and 202 controls. Median age of cases was 67 years (range 25–93 years), 74 (67%) were male. Among 65 patients with urine typable for MAb type we found a MAb 3/1-positive strain in all of them. Compared to controls being a case was not associated with a higher Legionella concentration in standard household water samples, however, the presence of a MAb 3/1-positive strain was significantly associated (odds ratio (OR) = 4.9, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.7 to 11). Thus, a source was attributed by microbiological evidence if it contained a MAb 3/1-positive strain. A source was attributed by cluster evidence if at least two cases were exposed to the same source. Statistically significant general source types were attributed by calculating the population attributable risk (analytical-comparative evidence). We identified an external source in 16 (14%) cases, and RDW as source in 28 (25%). Wearing inadequately disinfected dentures was the only RnDW source significantly associated with cases (OR = 3.2, 95% CI 1.3 to 7.8) and led to an additional 8% of cases with source attribution, for a total of 48% of cases attributed.ConclusionUsing the appraisal matrix we attributed almost half of all cases of CALD to an infectious source, predominantly RDW. Risk for LD seems to be conferred primarily by the type of Legionella rather than the amount. Dentures as a new infectious source needs further, in particular, integrated microbiological, molecular and epidemiological confirmation.

Daily changes in household water access and quality in urban slums undermine global safe water monitoring programmes.

Global drinking water monitoring programmes and studies on water quality in urban slums often overlook short-term temporal changes in water quality and health risks. The aim of this study was to quantify daily changes in household water access and quality in an urban slum in Malawi using a mixed-method approach. Household drinking water samples (n=371) were collected and monitored for E. coli in tandem with a water access questionnaire (n=481). E. coli concentrations in household drinking water changed daily, and no household had drinking water that was completely safe to drink every day. Seasonal changes in drinking water availability, intermittent supply, limited opening hours, and frequent breakdown of public water points contributed to poor access. Households relied on multiple water sources and regularly switched between sources to meet daily water needs. There were generally similar E. coli levels in water samples considered safe and unsafe by residents. This study provides the first empirical evidence that water quality, water access, and related health risks in urban slums change at much finer (daily) temporal scales than is conventionally monitored and reported globally. Our findings underscore that to advance progress towards Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target 6.1, it is necessary for global water monitoring initiatives to consider short-term changes in access and quality.

Household water quality in areas irrigated with wastewater in the Mezquital Valley, Mexico.

Wastewater for irrigation in low- and middle-income countries can recharge aquifers and potentially contaminate supply sources. The infiltration rate has increased 13-fold in Mexico's Mezquital Valley, the largest agricultural area wastewater-irrigated worldwide, thus we assume that wastewater had contaminated supply sources. Fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) counts were enumerated in household water of two wastewater-irrigated areas, Tula and Tlahuelilpan, and a groundwater irrigated area, Tecozautla. During 2016-2017, household water, wastewater, and groundwater were sampled, analyzing fecal coliforms, fecal enterococci, and Escherichia coli, following membrane filtration procedures, and confirming the presence of E. coli by polymerase chain reaction. Nearly 50% of household water contained fecal contamination of up to 4.62 × 104 CFU/100 mL. Significant differences between FIB counts in household water from Tula and Tecozautla were observed by Kruskal-Wallis and Dunnett tests. Household water samples from Tula contained highest FIB counts. Wastewater from Tula and Tlahuelilpan contained counts of six orders-of-magnitude of FIB. Counts were high when residual chlorine was <0.2 mg L-1 and underwater storage. This research serves as a baseline to observe improvement with a newly installed wastewater treatment plant. Safe irrigation wastewater reuse should be performed under strict surveillance, considering human safety a priority.

Implementation of point-of-use water treatment methods in a rural Tanzanian community: a case study

Abstract This study was conducted in an agro-pastoral community in Northern Tanzania, where water sources are contaminated, and point-of-use water treatment is rarely used. The objectives of the study were to determine the quality of drinking water at the household level and to assess the perception and attitude towards the treatment methods that were introduced to community members. The three treatment methods evaluated were chlorine tablets, silver-infused ceramic tablets, and solar water disinfection (SODIS). These methods were selected due to their availability, ease of use, cost, and effectiveness in water with high levels of coliform bacteria. Each home within the study area was provided with one of three treatment methods. The use, performance, and acceptability of the new water treatment methods were assessed over a three-week period. Prior to the introduction of the methods, 40% of households reported that they treated water regularly. However, 80% of the household water samples tested positive for Escherichia coli. After introducing the new methods, 60% of households increased their water consumption, and all water samples tested negative for E. coli during the final week of testing. The work demonstrates the need to provide access to cost-effective household water treatment methods, especially in rural communities that lack access to potable water.

English

Access to adequate and safe water is a universal human need. Lack of safe and adequate water supply causes health risk and the situation is serious in developing countries The aim of this study was to determine the bacterial load, physicochemical quality of drinking water in wells, reservoir, taps and household storage containers water samples and to investigate the hygiene and sanitation practices of the consumers in Woreta Town. A cross sectional community based study was conducted from January to March 2016 in Woreta town. A total of 189 water samples were collected from wells, reservoir, private taps and household storage containers in three rounds for bacteriological, physicochemical quality of drinking water and the hygiene-sanitation practices of the consumers were assessed using interview. Bacterial load analysis of water samples revealed that well and reservoir water samples were 100%; 30 (100%) tap water samples and 30 (100%) household storage container water samples were contaminated with total coliforms and did not meet the recommended value of World Health Organization (0CFU/100 ml). Regarding thermotolerant coliforms, one well water sample, 21 (70%) tap water samples and 30 (100%) household water samples were contaminated. The bacteriological load was greater at the household storage container water samples. There was statistically significant difference in total coliform and thermotolerants coliforms among the water sources at p < 0.01. Proper management of water sources, appropriate disinfection of raw water sources with chlorine and promoting good hygiene and sanitation practices are recommended to deliver safe drinking water to the consumers of the study area. Key words: Bacteriology, drinking water, household, hygiene, physicochemical, tap water.

Stress, Coping, Resilience and Trust during the Flint Water Crisis

In 2014, government officials in the City of Flint, Michigan switched the municipal water source from the Detroit Water System (water source: Lake Huron) to the Flint River. During this time, an estimated 102,000 Flint residents were potentially exposed to multiple chemical (e.g., lead) and biological threats (e.g., Legionella). After the switch to water sourced from the Flint River, Flint residents consistently reported concerns over water quality while also experiencing rashes, hair loss, and other health problems, including anxiety and depression. This study 1) reports on the Flint Water Crisis and its subsequent impact on residents’ stress, coping, resilience and trust and 2) describes a process methodology that trained, hired and deployed Flint residents as members of a multidisciplinary research team. A random sample of 320 Flint residents underwent household-based interviews to assess their health and mental health needs. Concomitantly, household water samples were obtained and residents were connected to known resources based on interview responses relative to need. This study found that declines in health and mental health status were correlated with increased stressors (i.e., fatigue, financial concern, anxiety), coping and less resilience or the capacity to recover. Perceived trust in government officials was significantly lower after the water crisis. While the water crisis generated numerous stressors, the event also galvanized community competence to engage in solution-focused coping and other adaptive capacities. By assessing and building upon Flint residents’ resilience, community resource specialists, identified and subsequently strengthened city residents’ ability to survive devastating challenges.