Household Income Research Articles

Prenatal Mental Health and Its Stress-Process Mechanisms During a Pandemic Lockdown: A Moderated Parallel Mediation Model

Objective Hundreds of countries have implemented lockdown policies to slow the spread of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19), but the impact of these measures on maternal mental health is not well understood.Methods This study integrated a stress-process model to examine the pathways from lockdown-related stressors to prenatal psychological outcomes, with COVID-19 coping strategies (COP) and self-efficacy in managing negative affect (NEG) as mediators and lockdown duration, hours on pandemic-related information, and number of pregnancies as moderators. Pregnant women in Shanghai completed the Regulatory Emotional Self-Efficacy Scale, COVID-19 Coping Scale, Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test and modify the hypothetical model, and moderated mediation and slope analyses were undertaken.Results In the final SEM demonstrating satisfactory fit, three stressors—decreased household income, insufficient daily supplies, and acquired infections—showed positive direct relationships with NEG and COP. Acquired infections, NEG, and COP were identified as direct predictors of mental health outcomes. The relationship between these three stressors and mental health was mediated by NEG and COP. Additionally, the number of pregnancies moderated the mediating effect of COP; this effect was more pronounced among first-time pregnant women than those with multiple pregnancies.Conclusion This study provides insights into how lockdown measures impact psychological outcomes in pregnant women quarantined at home. Interventions aimed at increasing coping strategies may be more effective for primiparous women during future public health emergencies.

Catastrophic health payments in Ghana post-National Health Insurance Scheme implementation: an analysis of service-specific health expenditures

BackgroundGhana implemented several health reforms in the 1970s and 1990s. Still, several access barriers persist, including high out-of-pocket (OOP) spending, which led to the implementation of the National Health Insurance...

Household Income, Maternal Allostatic Load During Pregnancy, and Offspring With Autism Spectrum Disorders.

Relative maternal poverty is a suggested social determinant of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) in offspring; however, this association may be confounded by the maternal broader autism phenotype (BAP). The biological mechanisms underlying this association are largely understudied. We examined the association between household income during pregnancy and ASDs in offspring, adjusting for confounders including maternal BAP, and explored whether maternal chronic stress, measured by allostatic load (AL) during pregnancy, mediates this association. Data on 59,998 mother-child dyads were obtained from the Japan Environment and Children's Study, a nationwide birth cohort. Household income was categorized into tertiles (< 4 million, 4-6 million, > 6 million JPY) and offspring ASD diagnosis by age four was assessed via guardian's report. Bayesian logistic regression models indicated that mothers from low- and middle-income households had a 58% (95% credible interval [CI]: 28%-98%) and a 37% (95% CI: 12%-70%) higher risk of offspring ASDs, respectively, compared to those from high-income households. AL, defined as three or more out of 10 biomarkers in the highest risk quartile, did not mediate these associations. Low and middle household income during pregnancy was associated with a higher risk of ASD diagnosis, and high AL did not mediate this association.

Characterizing Social Communication Difficulties in Young Children within a Longitudinal Ecological Systems Framework.

Social communication difficulties are a transdiagnostic risk factor for psychopathology. However, few studies have examined prospective risk for social communication difficulties in young children within an ecological systems framework. Our sample was 251 parent-child dyads assessed during pregnancy, postpartum, and toddlerhood (child ages 1 and 2). We leveraged observer ratings of child behavior, parent-reported questionnaires, and geocoded data. We examined prospective risk factors for social communication difficulties at ages 1 and 2, including at the level of the child (gestational age), family (household income, maternal mental health, maternal-child bonding), and neighborhood (neighborhood resources). Fewer neighborhood resources were associated with more social communication difficulties at age 1, but only among dyads with impaired maternal bonding. Lower gestational age, lower household income, and impaired maternal bonding were associated with more child social communication difficulties at age 2. Fewer neighborhood resources were also related to more social communication difficulties at age 2, specifically among families with low household incomes. Findings provide insight into families who may benefit from early intervention to reduce transdiagnostic risk for child psychopathology across ecological systems, including efforts to target maternal bonding and poverty.

Multidimensional Poverty in Rural China: Human Capital vs Social Capital

Abstract Occupational stratification is the comprehensive division and classification of various occupations undertaken by members of society according to specific standards and methods. Based on China Family Panel Studies data, we use the Alkire–Foster method to calculate the rural multidimensional poverty index and empirically examine the impact of human capital, social capital, and occupational stratification on rural multidimensional poverty reduction. The results show that the improvement of human capital and social capital can affect the occupational stratification of rural household members, thereby promoting the growth of household income and reducing multidimensional poverty in the household; occupational stratification is an intermediator in the poverty reduction effect of human capital and social capital; compared to social capital, human capital has a more substantial impact on occupational stratification and rural multidimensional poverty; human capital has a long-term dynamic impact on household multidimensional poverty. On the other hand, social capital has a short-term impact on household multidimensional poverty. At the same time, occupational stratification has a long-term dynamic impact on household multidimensional poverty and is also a long-term poverty reduction mechanism. We delve into the long-term mechanisms for addressing multidimensional poverty through the lens of occupational stratification. Furthermore, we compare the contributions of social and human capital to occupational stratification and the reduction of multidimensional poverty in Chinese rural areas. This analysis enriches the existing literature on poverty studies.

Sustainability of the Integrated Waste Management System: A Case Study of Bihor County, Romania

This study examines a range of aspects relating to the projected waste generation in Bihor County, Romania from 2020 to 2040, focusing on key milestones set for 2020, 2025, 2030, 2035, and 2040. The analysis incorporates socio-economic, macroeconomic, and demographic factors, along with household income, economic activities, and waste composition, in order to obtain accurate projections. Furthermore, this study evaluates the current state of waste management, identifies deficiencies, and proposes targeted objectives. The assessment methodology considers targets such as increasing waste reuse and recycling rates, reducing biodegradable waste landfilling, enhancing energy recovery, and improving separate waste collection systems. Three alternative waste management strategies are analyzed, including a “zero” alternative (i.e., maintaining the current system) and two investment-driven alternatives. The evaluation integrates both quantitative criteria—such as financial viability and environmental impacts—and qualitative factors, including market risk and adherence to circular economy principles. Through a comprehensive analysis, this study offers a robust foundation for strategic decision-making in the context of sustainable waste management and the efficient implementation of waste treatment practices in Bihor County.

A correlation between perceived social support and professional quality of life: a cross-sectional study among government school teachers in the Nuwaragampalatha East educational division of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka

BackgroundSocial support for school teachers could play an important role in their professional quality of life (ProQOL). We aim to describe a correlation between perceived social support (PSS) and ProQOL and its association with variables of interest among government school teachers in the Nuwaragampalatha East educational division of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.MethodsA descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted using a self-administered questionnaire. All consenting teachers of the top three government schools (with grade 1 to 13 classes) having the highest student–teacher ratio in the Nuwaragampalatha East educational division of Anuradhapura district were included. Adjusted odds ratios from logistic regression were reported for socio-demographic factors against PSS and ProQOL (p < 0.05). Spearman’s Rho was used to find a correlation between PSS and ProQOL (p < 0.05).ResultsMost of the teachers (n = 336) were females (82%), having higher education (63%), married (94%), and permanently residing in Anuradhapura (98%). Most had a high level of overall PSS (61%), a high level of compassion satisfaction (68%), a low level of burnout (56%), and a moderate level of secondary traumatic stress (60%). Monthly household income [aOR—1.65 (1.01—2.69)] and years served as a teacher [aOR—2.85 (1.05—7.74)] were significantly associated with overall PSS. The overall PSS had a positive significant correlation with compassion satisfaction (r = + 0.31, p < 0.01) and a negative significant correlation with burnout (r = − 0.23, p < 0.01).ConclusionA significant correlation between PSS and the emotions of ProQOL was found among state school teachers. Hence, optimizing social support would help improve school teachers' ProQOL.

Has underweight increased among children and adolescents during 2012–2019, and does the prevalence depend on socioeconomic circumstances? A nationwide register-based study from Denmark

BackgroundChildhood underweight, indicated by low body mass index (BMI) for age and sex, is associated with morbidity, mortality and poverty in low-income settings, but is often overlooked in high-income countries,...

Reaping Equality: Strategies for Gender Roles in Indonesiaʼs Agricultural Transformation

ABSTRACTThis study uses data from Statistics Indonesia for 2010 and 2020 to analyse the correlation between gender and agricultural transformation. It employs descriptive statistics to explore the transformation from food crops to high‐value commodities, womenʼs roles in on‐farm and non‐farm sectors, womenʼs working hours and wages, and rural household income. The findings reveal a complex dynamic. While womenʼs participation in the workforce has increased across Indonesia, their roles in the agricultural sector remain multifaceted. Furthermore, the shift towards high‐value commodities presents both challenges and opportunities for women. Although it may lead to increased workloads and marginalisation, it may also offer new income‐generating opportunities and opportunities for greater empowerment. This study addresses a critical research gap by examining womenʼs specific experiences and contributions in the transition from food crops to high‐value commodities and their role in the shift from agricultural to non‐agricultural livelihoods, which remain understudied in the context of Indonesiaʼs agricultural transformation. It emphasises the importance of policies that address gender inequality and empower women to fully participate in and benefit from rural development initiatives.

Determinants of smallholder farmers’ choices of adaptation strategies to climate variability in the Ayehu watershed, Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT Adapting to climate variability is essential for sustainable livelihoods in developing countries like Ethiopia, where rainfed agriculture is vital. This study examines indigenous and introduced adaptation strategies across different agroecological zones, identifying the factors influencing their selection. Data were collected from 338 agricultural households using a questionnaire. The weighted average index (WAI) identified the main adaptation techniques, while the problem confrontation index (PCI) assessed barriers to effective adaptation. The multinomial logit model (MNL) analyzed the factors affecting adaptation choices. The results showed that indigenous methods like cultivating local crop varieties (WAI = 2.22), diversifying crops (WAI = 2.15), and adjusting planting dates (WAI = 2.14) were prevalent, while introduced strategies included using inorganic fertilizers (WAI = 2.64) and improved crop varieties (WAI = 2.41). Barriers such as limited farm size, lack of climate information, poor soil quality, and high input costs were identified through PCI. The MNL model highlighted education, access to credit, extension services, climate perception, and household income as key factors influencing adaptation strategies. These findings emphasize the need for region-specific interventions tailored to local environmental and socioeconomic conditions, which can help policymakers develop effective climate adaptation strategies that enhance resilience and sustainability in farming communities.

Identifying relevant intersections in relation to motivation and attempt to stop smoking by using a combination of methods to develop robust predictive models and resampling techniques: A cross-sectional study of the German population.

To illustrate robust intersections of co-occurring factors for two predictors of smoking cessation, motivation to stop smoking (MTSS) and past year-quit attempts (QA), by using means to develop robust predictive models such as bootstrap resampling, scoring rules to evaluate the predictive accuracy and spline functions. Cross-sectional data from the German Study on Tobacco Use (DEBRA). Past-years smokers (≥18 years, n = 13 245) from 22 survey waves (2016-2020) were included. The sample (mean age 46.8 years, 46.7% women) was randomly divided into learning (70%) and validation data (30%). Less than 20% in both data sets had tried to stop smoking within the preceding 12 months. Multinomial regression (for MTSS) and logistic regression (for QA) were used to evaluate whether age, sex, education, monthly net household income per person and the region of residence form intersections with relevant differences in the two outcomes. MTSS compared with the absence of MTSS was associated with middle [95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.02-1.39] and high education (95% CI = 1.37-1.98). Regarding MTSS, the highest probabilities were observed in participants aged 30 to 50 years from lower and middle (30-40 years) income groups. Regarding QA, the probability of at least one past-year QA was highest in females aged between 20 and 40 years and independent from educational level. Similar probabilities in males were seen only among those from the highest educated group. The predictive accuracy of the results was reduced by 3.1% for MTSS and 3.4% for QA when comparing learning with validation data. This German study provides compelling evidence linking highest motivation to stop smoking to those aged 30 to 50 years with lower or middle household income. Regardless of educational level, females' probabilities of reporting at least one past-year quit attempt appears to be highest in those aged 20 to 40 years. These findings highlight the need for adopting an intersectional approach when studying predictors of smoking cessation.

So Rich, So Poor: Household Income and Consumption in Urban Spain in the Early Twentieth Century (Zaragoza, 1924)

So Rich, So Poor: Household Income and Consumption in Urban Spain in the Early Twentieth Century (Zaragoza, 1924)

Disparities in Hearing Aid Use Among Those With Hearing Loss in Rural and Urban Settings.

To investigate potential disparities in hearing aid use among urban and rural populations with hearing loss. Cross-sectional analysis. We used pooled data from the 2017 and 2018 rounds of the Medicare Current Beneficiary Survey (MCBS). Our analytic sample was restricted to 8107 participants with hearing loss (those who reported little to a lot of trouble hearing) and with a full set of covariates. Multivariate logistic regression models for the probability of hearing aid use were estimated using a participant's place of residence (rural/urban) and household income relative to the Federal Poverty Level (low and middle income ≤ 200% of Federal Poverty Level (FPL); high income > 200% FPL) as main exposures. In models using place of residence as the main exposure, we found no statistically significant difference in hearing aid use between rural and urban populations. In models combining place of residence with income, we found that respondents in the rural high-income group were at the highest odds for hearing aid use (odds ratio (OR): 1.99, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.52-2.59) when compared to the rural low and middle-income group and, similarly, for the urban high-income (OR: 1.57, 95% CI: 1.26-1.96) and urban low and middle-income groups (OR: 1.31, 95% CI: 1.02-1.69). There are potential interactions of metro status and income regarding hearing aid use that are more pronounced in rural populations. This might allow policymakers to target interventions for hearing loss to rural and low-income populations. 3.

Build or Break? The Impact of Rural E‐Commerce on Household Income Inequality in China

Build or Break? The Impact of Rural E‐Commerce on Household Income Inequality in China

Lower Neighborhood-level Socioeconomic Status is Associated with Lower Colorectal Cancer Screening Uptake in the Southern Community Cohort Study.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is highly preventable with timely screening, but screening modalities are widely underused, especially among those of low individual-level socioeconomic status (SES). In addition to individual-level SES, neighborhood-level SES may also play a role in CRC screening completion through less geographic access to health care, transportation, and community knowledge of and support for screenings. We investigated the associations between neighborhood SES using a census tract-level measure of social and economic conditions with the uptake of colonoscopy and stool-based testing. We utilized data from the Southern Community Cohort Study, a large, prospective study of English-speaking adults aged 40-79 from the southeastern United States with 65% of participants identifying as non-Hispanic Black and 53% having annual household income <$15,000. Neighborhood SES was measured via a Neighborhood Deprivation Index compiled from principal component analysis of 11 census tract variables in the domains of education, employment, occupation, and poverty; screening was self-reported at the baseline interview (2002-2009) and follow-up interview (2008-2012). We found that participants residing in the lowest SES areas had lower odds of ever undergoing colonoscopy (ORQ5vsQ1=0.75; 95%CI=[0.68, 0.82]) or stool-based CRC testing (ORQ5vsQ1=0.71; 95%CI=[0.63, 0.80]), while adjusting for individual-level SES factors. Associations were consistent between neighborhood SES and screening in subgroups defined by race, sex, household income, insurance, or education (p>0.20 for all interaction tests). Our findings suggest that barriers to screening exist at the neighborhood level and that residents of lower SES neighborhoods may experience more barriers to screening using colonoscopy and stool-based modalities.

Exploring the Widening Trend in Racial and Ethnic Differences in Youth Mental Health Service Use.

The authors examined trends in racial and ethnic disparities in youth mental health treatment for internalizing and externalizing conditions in the United States from 2002 to 2019. Using data from the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey-Household Component, the authors analyzed trends in mental health treatment between 2002 and 2019 for youths ages 5-21 years (N=139,242). Logistic regression models predicting treatment were adjusted for age and sex and also for health status, household income, insurance coverage, and geographic region. The treatment rate for internalizing conditions grew faster for White youths than for Hispanic or Black youths, and this difference tripled (from 1.6 to 5.4 percentage points) from 2002 to 2019. For externalizing conditions, the treatment rate grew twice as fast for White youths compared with Hispanic youths and 50% faster relative to Black youths. Uninsured status was significantly and negatively associated with treatment for externalizing conditions (b=-0.928, SE=0.342) but not internalizing conditions (b=-0.440, SE=0.317). Family income was most strongly linked to treatment among Hispanic youths. For internalizing conditions, adjustments for health, household income, insurance status, and region explained 18% of the treatment gap for Hispanic youths but only 6% of the gap for Black youths in 2016-2019. These findings highlight widening racial and ethnic disparities in youth mental health treatment. The demographic and socioeconomic factors associated with these disparities varied by type of condition. Addressing socioeconomic determinants alone is insufficient to ensure equitable access to mental health services. Tailored approaches considering clinical, cultural, and societal needs are essential to mitigate treatment disparities.

To Trust or not to Trust, That’s the Question: The Impact of General Trust on Household Income in Rural Vietnam

To Trust or not to Trust, That’s the Question: The Impact of General Trust on Household Income in Rural Vietnam

Avoidable hospitalizations among racialized groups in Canada: Results from the 2016 Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohort.

Ambulatory care sensitive conditions (ACSCs) are illnesses that can be effectively treated and managed in primary care settings. Hospitalizations for ACSCs are therefore considered avoidable and may indicate poor access to quality primary care. This study examined trends in avoidable hospitalizations in Canada among racialized groups. The 2016 Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohort was used to estimate annual age-standardized hospitalization rates (ASHRs) for ACSCs among people aged 10 to 74 from 2016/2017 to 2021/2022. ASHRs were disaggregated by sex and racialized group. Rate ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated to assess relative inequality. Logistic regression models were run, adjusting for age, sex, immigrant status, household income, and education. Across all study years, the odds of avoidable hospitalizations were significantly higher among males, Black people, and non-immigrants, and significantly lower among Chinese people and people in the category "other racialized groups not included elsewhere." In 2020/2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic, RRs for Black females compared with non-racialized females decreased (2019/2020: RR=1.12, 95% CI=1.07 to 1.61; 2020/2021: RR=0.99, 95% CI=0.94 to 1.04), while they significantly increased for Black males compared with non-racialized males (2019/2020: RR=1.30, 95% CI=1.25 to 1.35; 2020/2021: RR=1.63, 95% CI=1.41 to 1.88). This study reveals inequalities in avoidable hospitalizations in Canada, pronounced for the Black population compared with the non-racialized population, especially during the pandemic (2020/2021 and 2021/2022). Future studies examining the factors driving these inequalities (e.g., access to primary care, most prevalent conditions, geography) may inform targeted interventions.

Demand for fish in Great Britain is driven by household income and taste.

Fish is high in nutrients that provide a range of health benefits, but people in Great Britain only consume around half the amount that is recommended. This study analysed the demand for fish, for consumption at home, across different household groups in Great Britain. Using a Rotterdam demand model, price and income elasticities were estimated for eleven fish groups across seven household groups. To investigate changes in fish demand, we decomposed growth in fish demand into income, relative price, and change in taste and seasonality. The data used for our analysis was drawn from the Kantar Worldpanel dataset for Great Britain for the period from 2013 to 2021. 12,492 households in Great Britain. Families with children consistently allocated a lower share of their grocery spending on fish and prefer to purchase ready-to-use and convenient fish products, compared to households without children. Purchases of chilled fresh/smoked oily fish, canned oily fish, and frozen processed fish led spending across demographic groups, whilst purchases of canned oily fish showed minimal growth. The demand for most fish products across household groups was price inelastic, indicating that the percentage change in quantity of fish demanded increased or fell by less than the percentage change in price. Income and taste were identified as significant determinants of demand changes across all household groups, while price only played a prominent role in demand changes for certain fish groups. Thus, increasing fish consumption, especially in lower-income groups, who do not usually consume much fish, may require a different intervention than simply making fish more affordable.

Research on the influencing factors and economic effects of China's household leverage ratio

This study explores the influencing factors and economic effects of my country's household leverage ratio. In recent years, my country's household leverage ratio has risen rapidly, which has had a profound impact on the stable development of the economy. This paper first sorts out the main factors affecting the household leverage ratio through literature review and theoretical analysis, including macroeconomic factors (such as economic growth rate, monetary policy, real estate market, etc.), microeconomic factors (such as household income level, consumption habits and savings rate, credit availability, etc.) and social factors (such as population structure, education and financial literacy, etc.). On this basis, this paper analyzes the specific impact of household leverage ratio on economic growth, financial stability, real estate market and household consumption behavior. The study found that a moderate household leverage ratio can promote economic growth and consumption, but an excessively high leverage ratio may trigger financial risks, inhibit long-term consumption capacity, and aggravate the volatility of the real estate market. Finally, this paper puts forward a series of policy recommendations, including reasonably guiding the household leverage ratio, strengthening financial supervision and promoting financial education, in order to provide reference for the government and financial institutions and promote the sustainable development of the economy. Through this study, it is hoped that new perspectives and ideas can be provided for academics and policymakers, and theoretical and practical support can be provided for solving the problem of household leverage ratio in my country.