Background/Objectives: Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) is a pressing global animal and public health challenge. There is limited data on AMR prevalence, trends, and drivers in bacterial pathogens from animal sources in Uganda. Thus, this study investigated the occurrence and factors associated with multidrug resistance (MDR) in bacterial isolates recovered from clinical samples of animals submitted to the national veterinary diagnostic laboratory in Uganda. Methods: A retrospective study analyzed antibiogram data of bacteria from animal samples submitted to the Central Diagnostic Laboratory, Makerere University in Uganda between 2014 and 2020. The cleaned dataset comprised 590 cases with antibiogram data. Statistical analyses were conducted using R software version 4.5.2. Results: Gram-negative bacteria were predominant (74.4%) among the samples from clinical cases. The overall MDR proportion in the general bacteria population was 41.7% over the seven-year period. Among the clinically relevant bacteria, MDR was highest in Escherichia coli (57.2%), followed by Staphylococcus aureus (35.8%) and Salmonella (15.5%). Univariable screening of predictors hypothesized that MDR was influenced by year of case submission, animal host type, and bacterial group (p < 0.05). Multivariable logistic regression showed that isolates submitted in 2019 (vs. 2015) had significantly higher odds of MDR (aOR = 4.21; 95% CI: 1.62-13.14), indicating a marked temporal increase in resistance. Gram-negative bacteria (vs. Gram-positives) were also more likely to exhibit MDR (aOR = 1.62; 95% CI: 1.07-2.48). Conclusions: The high occurrence of MDR in bacterial pathogens from animal clinical submissions revealed the need for improved antimicrobial stewardship and integrated AMR surveillance in Uganda, particularly within the central region from which most diagnostic samples originated.

Purpose This study aims to explore the impact of Airbnb on small accommodations by drawing upon the theory of disruptive innovation. It examines how the growth of Airbnb supply and the performance of Airbnb listings reshape the small accommodation landscape. Furthermore, this study conducts a heterogeneity analysis by using listing type, host type and accommodation size, providing detailed insights in the relationship between Airbnb and small accommodations. Design/methodology/approach The authors constructed a data set spanning 16 South Korean provinces from 2015 to 2024 and used the system-generalized method of moments for this analysis. For the heterogeneity analysis, the authors used the number of listings managed by a host and the room size of small accommodations. Findings The results show that Airbnb supply is negatively associated with small accommodation supply, with differences among the types of Airbnb listings and hosts. Medium- and large-sized small accommodations have demonstrated significant value. However, Airbnb performance has had no significant effect on the supply of small accommodations except for the influence of the supply of large-sized small accommodations. Originality/value This study explores Airbnb’s impact on small accommodations, addressing a research gap overlooked in studies focused on large hotels. By applying the theory of disruptive innovation, it highlights the unique vulnerability of small accommodations and provides insights into structural changes in the lodging industry, offering a basis for effective policymaking.

Abstract The aim of the present study is to investigate the effect of the host type and the species of the parasite on the phytochemicals of two dodder species, compared to wild healthy host species. To fulfill this, two cases of host- dodder relationships were used:1-One dodder species associated with different hosts. 2-Two dodder species associated with the same host. Results showed that both C.chinensis , C.australis and their healthy hosts are rich in active constituents, like alkaloids, phenols, glycosides, flavonoids, tannins, gallic acids, vanillic acids, caffeic acid, syringic acid, 3,5-caffeoylquinic acid, hydroxybenzoic acid, ferulic acid and catechin. The study also revealed that the dodder species in all or most of their active constituents rely on their host, whether they parasitize the same host or different host species. and that they have the ability to produce some active compounds on their own. Detailed discussion in this study was included.

Clonally derived cell lines generated from Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells encounter numerous stressors when cultured in high-intensity perfusion bioreactors leading to poor process performance. To circumvent this, the ability of CHO cells to adapt to different culture environments was exploited. Here host cells were selected in the presence of physical and chemical stressors associated with a perfusion environment by culturing at a high cell density in a perfusion bioreactor for 30 days. Following recovery and expansion, the performance of the resulting perfusion-evolved host was evaluated using stable transfectant pools and clones expressing biotherapeutics of different formats. Cell lines generated from the perfusion host outperformed the parental host at several fundamental stages of the clone selection process. Perfusion host-derived pools showed elevations in productivity, cell-specific productivity, end-of-run viability, and reduced lactate production in fed-batch culture. Use of the perfusion host for cell line generation resulted in an increased frequency of high-producing clones. Moreover, the perfusion host-derived clones demonstrated 30% higher productivity and improved mannose profile in the perfusion environment compared to the clones from the parental host. Furthermore, a comparative proteomic analysis between the two host types revealed unique regulatory networks that allowed us to gain insights into the underlying molecular processes influencing production performance. Taken together, the results suggest that the perfusion host may not only increase the efficiency of the cell line development process but may also serve as an efficient tool for improvement in production capability in the perfusion platform.

Type Ia supernovae are used as fundamental probes of the cosmological parameters, based on a tight empirical relation between their peak luminosity and the width of their light curve. However, it has been recognized that SNe Ia are not “standard” candles, since important variations in their peak luminosities are observed, as a function of the metallicity, age, environment, and morphological type of the supernova hosts. The largest correction in the standardization scheme is related to extinction. While extinction in the Milky Way (MW) Galaxy is usually known and extinction between galaxies can be assumed to be zero, the value of extinction in the SN Ia host galaxy (Ahost) is determined with much more uncertainty. In this paper, we provide an estimate of the Ahost value based on statistical modeling. To do this, we generate, based on MaNGA data, a set of galaxies in the vicinity of the MW, and distribute the parameters of the galaxies and the positions of SNe Ia in them. As a result, using a simplified model for the distribution of interstellar matter, which is the same for all the sampled galaxies, we can estimate the probability that Ahost exceeds a certain value. Our estimates show, in particular, that in almost all cases, Ahost &gt; 0.10 mag V, and in 25% of cases, Ahost &gt; 0.25 mag V.

Negative thermal expansion (NTE)-the phenomenon where some materials shrink rather than expand when heated-is both intriguing from a structural and thermodynamic point of view and useful in electrical, optical, and high-temperature devices resistant to thermal shock but remains poorly understood. In the meantime, luminescence thermal quenching (TQ, thermally induced luminescence quenching) is a common issue faced by luminescent materials because of the aggravation of various nonradiation relaxations with elevated temperatures. In recent years, NTE materials have emerged as a type of new host for luminescent materials to solve their inherent TQ problem, especially at elevating temperatures. Herein, we have demonstrated a novel strategy to achieve outstanding anti-TQ performance with a substantial enhancement of Eu3+ red emission at 613 nm from Sc2MO3O12:Tb3+,Eu3+ phosphor. Its anti-TQ performance is endowed by dual energy transfer (ET) pathways and intensified by the negative thermal expansion (NTE) property of Sc2MO3O12 host. Remarkably, the photoluminescence (PL) emission intensity of Eu3+ from Sc2MO3O12:20%Eu3+,2%Tb3+ phosphor at 648 K reaches 507.3% of the initial intensity taken at 298 K. The lifetime of Eu3+ emission at 613 nm elongates with increasing measurement temperature. Our experimental data and density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal that the host structure shrinkage via NTE has led to the thermally boosted Eu3+ red emission by intensifying the consecutive ET and confinement of the absorption light. We have realized the potential of this phosphor as a dual-mode high temperature thermometer based on both emission lifetime and intensity ratio read-out modes. Our studies provide inspiration to combine multiple strategies to achieve broad and dramatic anti-TQ phosphors with enhanced performance for various optical applications.

Abstract The global push towards reaching the climate change mitigation goals and energy transition has placed the spotlight on international investment law and investment arbitration from a different angle, opening reform avenues focused on modifying investment treaties and arbitration to fit the contemporary sustainable development goals. These reforms are considered as high priority due to the widely perceived detrimental effects of investment protection standards in old-generation investment treaties, as interpreted by arbitral tribunals. During the past decade, the tension between the state’s right to regulate in the public interest and modify existing renewable energy schemes and the guarantees and protections granted to existing investors was on full display in an increasing number of investment arbitrations filed by renewable energy investors, primarily against Italy, the Czech Republic and Spain. The fair and equitable treatment standard (FET) has consistently featured as the most frequent and most successful claim by claimant renewable investors, regardless of the respondent host state and type of investment. Although critics have complained of inconsistent outcomes, a deeper analysis shows that arbitral tribunals have developed consistent lines of interpretation which can (and have) impacted the reformed new-generation FET standard. The awards issued to date in the “renewable energy investment arbitration sagas” reveal a wealth of legal and policy insights, and the potential for a reformed FET standard which can be applied to the benefit of the energy transition process. Through the lens of the Spanish renewable investment awards, as the most abundant and growing sample of case law, this article explores the evolution of the FET standard through arbitral jurisprudence and the proposed reforms which may help harness its protective effects to boost sustainable development.

ABSTRACTBackground and Aim:Getah virus (GETV), a mosquito-borne alphavirus of veterinary importance, has caused periodic outbreaks in domestic animals, especially in Asia. Although several studies have reported evidence of infection in animals, the overall global seroprevalence remains unclear. This study aimed to comprehensively synthesize available evidence on the worldwide seroprevalence of GETV in domestic and wild animals and identify epidemiological patterns across host types, regions, and detection methods.Materials and Methods:A systematic search of PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Web of Science was conducted following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses 2020 guidelines, without temporal or regional restrictions. Eligible studies reporting serological detection of GETV antibodies in animal populations were included. Data were extracted and analyzed using a DerSimonian–Laird random-effects model, with subgroup analyses stratified by country, host category, sampling period, and diagnostic method. Heterogeneity was quantified using I2 statistics, and potential publication bias was assessed with funnel plots and Egger’s regression test.Results:Fifteen studies (n = 10,211 animals) met the inclusion criteria. The pooled global seroprevalence of GETV was 33.3% (95% confidence interval: 24.2–43.9; I2 = 98.65%, p < 0.001). Malaysia reported the highest seroprevalence (77.2%), followed by China (41.8%) and South Korea (26.4%). Domestic animals (34.0%) exhibited higher exposure than wild species (29.2%), with pigs (43.1%) and cattle (43.2%) recording the highest rates. Studies using virus-neutralization tests yielded higher estimates (47.3%) than those employing enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (31.4%) or hemagglutination inhibition (7.3%). Meta-regression revealed study location and diagnostic method as significant sources of heterogeneity.Conclusion:This meta-analysis demonstrates that GETV is endemic among Asian animal populations, particularly domestic livestock, indicating substantial virus circulation across species. The findings underscore the need for enhanced veterinary surveillance, standardized serological testing, and One Health-oriented monitoring frameworks to detect and mitigate GETV transmission risks. The absence of data from Africa, Europe, and the Americas highlights an urgent need for geographically expanded research to better understand the virus’s global distribution and zoonotic potential.

Synergistic antiviral activity of a cathepsin B/L inhibitor and a TMPRSS2 inhibitor against SARS-CoV-2 in vitro and in vivo.

ABSTRACTOngoing shifts in climate and land use have altered interactions between trees and insect herbivores, changing biotic disturbance regimes. However, as these changes are complex and vary across host species, insect taxa, and feeding guilds, they remain poorly understood. We compiled annual records of forest insect disturbance from 15 countries in temperate and boreal Europe, spanning the period from 2000 to 2022. The dataset comprises 1361 time series characterizing the dynamics of 50 herbivorous insects. We used this dataset to test whether insect disturbance has systematically changed during the 23‐year period across host trees and feeding guilds, whether it varies along latitudinal and climatic gradients, and whether synchrony exists among species in the same guild or among species sharing the same host. Since 2000, borer disturbance was predominantly concentrated on gymnosperms, while defoliators impacted gymnosperms and angiosperms more evenly. While 85.8% of gymnosperm disturbance was inflicted by a single species, Ips typographus, the majority of disturbances to angiosperms were caused by six different species. Borer impact on gymnosperms has increased in the 21st century, while defoliator impact has decreased across both clades. In contrast to diverging temporal trends, disturbance was consistently greater in warmer and drier conditions across feeding guilds and host types. We identified significant synchrony in insect disturbance within host types and feeding guilds but not between these groups, suggesting shared drivers within guilds and host types. Increasing insect disturbance to gymnosperms may catalyze adaptive transformations in Europe's forests, promoting a shift from historical conifer‐dominated management to broadleaved trees, which are less affected by insect herbivores. Our findings reveal a diversity of trends in insect herbivory, underscoring the need to strengthen monitoring and research in order to better understand underlying mechanisms and identify emerging threats that may not be apparent in currently available data.

BackgroundPlasmodium knowlesi, a non-human primate (NHP) malaria parasite, has become a major public health concern in Malaysia and is now the leading cause of human malaria infections in the country. The transmission of P. knowlesi involves a complex cycle among humans, non-human primates and vectors. Numerous studies have focused on these hosts individually, but comprehensive research that integrates field data from all three hosts is lacking. This study aims to integrate multi-pronged surveillance data from macaques, vectors and human blood samples to better understand the epidemiology of P. knowlesi malaria in Peninsular Malaysia.MethodsField sampling data (both previously published and unpublished) collected from humans, macaques and mosquito vectors by this research group in Peninsular Malaysia between 2019 and 2022 were integrated. The data collected for each host type within the same site and month were aggregated as a single sampling event. Partial correlations of outcomes between different host sampling sites were analysed by controlling for inter-host sampling site proximity and temporal difference. Spatiotemporal correlations were analysed between the sampling outcomes and historical human P. knowlesi malaria cases reported within defined distances (up to 20 km) from the sampling sites across different time lead windows (range from −12 to 12 months).ResultsPartial correlation analysis, controlled for inter-host sampling-site spatial proximity and temporal difference, showed a statistically significant positive partial correlation between the proportion of field-sampled human P. knowlesi-positive cases and the average number of Anopheles Leucosphyrus-group mosquitoes sampled per night within a 10-km proximity constraint (rs = 0.228, P = 0.042). A consistently statistically significant positive correlation was found between the proportion of P. knowlesi-positive macaques and the number of historical human P. knowlesi cases reported in defined spatial proximity to macaque sampling sites, particularly within spatial radii of 6 km and beyond, across both backward and forward time leads. Other NHP malaria parasites, P. cynomolgi, P. inui, P. coatneyi and P. fieldi, exhibited heterogeneous patterns in macaques and vectors, particularly in terms of geographical distribution and mixed-species infection. The proportions of macaque samples positive for P. knowlesi, P. inui and P. coatneyi were statistically higher in the peridomestic–agriculture area as compared with the urban area.ConclusionsA key finding from this study is that the proportion of P. knowlesi infection in macaques may serve as a useful proxy for persistent transmission in an area, potentially indicating increased risk of human infection in nearby communities. This highlights the value of wildlife surveillance in predicting and managing zoonotic malaria risk. Integrating insights from epidemiology, ecology, veterinary science and public health is essential for effectively controlling zoonotic diseases such as P. knowlesi malaria and reducing their impact on both human and animal populations.Graphical abstractSupplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-025-07082-6.

Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PJP) poses an important risk in immunodeficient patients. Several aspects of the pathogenesis and management of PJP remain poorly understood. The aim of this review is to describe new trends and challenges in the diagnosis and treatment of PJP focused on non-HIV patients compared with patients living with HIV. The immune response to Pneumocystis jiroveci infection varies among different host types and modifies clinical and radiological presentation. The performance of microbiological diagnostic tests depends on pretest probability according to baseline disease, clinical presentation, and radiological pattern. Real-time qualitative and quantitative PCR tests have been proposed as the optimal method for PJP diagnosis, but it is essential to interpret PCR results within the clinical context. Therapy of PJP has not changed substantially, but new options with low-dose trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole and combination treatment with old and new antifungals are being explored. The use of complementary steroid treatment is well established in patients living with HIV but is controversial in non-HIV patients. Protocols for primary and secondary PJP prophylaxis are evolving. Evidence for nosocomial acquisition and possible person-to-person transmission of infection suggests the need for formal infection control policies. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial for improving the prognosis of PJP, but several challenges remain to be addressed. Future efforts should focus on developing new diagnostic methods, treatment options and risk stratification tools to improve prevention strategies.

The primary plant pathogens impacting fruit, vegetable, and staple crops worldwide are the Xanthomonas and Pseudomonas groups. The use of antibiotics, pesticides, biocontrol agents, and resistant cultivars are the mainstays of current management strategies; their efficacy depends on the host type, disease kind, and approaches employed. Since bacterial populations are continually changing, the scientific community faces fresh difficulties from counter-mechanisms. Mutation or recombination combined with human mobility leads to new forms of plant infectious illnesses, which intensify the pathogens' temporal and spatial dissemination. We provide background literature covering the salient features of the pathogens and symptomology of infection. Cellular and genetic mechanisms of the pathogens are covered in detail. The major finding are Xanthomonas axonopodis, plant immune responses include TTSS-effector suppression and biofilms mediated by quorum sensing (QS) and EPS production. Pseudomonas syringae primary processes include redox proteins, efflux pumps, salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA) signaling. The persister cells and the ability to enter viable but non-culturable mode (VBNC) states is an additional tool in Xanthomonas' resistance toolbox. Pathogens can create irreversible intracellular states and avoid immune responses owing to these mechanisms. The pathogen's modus operandi and biochemical pathways will be revealed by a better understanding of host-pathogen interactions, effectors, pathways, and signaling cascades. It is a key step in the identification of genetic variability and the development of targets and effective control measures.

Abstract Microbial communities in the plant rhizosphere – the soil region closely associated with plant roots – play critical roles in shaping plant growth, defence, fitness, and ecosystem processes. Inoculation of plants with specific rhizobacteria strains has shown promising potential for increasing crop yields. Rhizobacteria can also induce plant defences, resulting in reduced insect growth and reproduction, and can manipulate plant biochemistry to alter insect host-choice and recruit natural enemies of the insects. We present a meta-analysis examining the impact of rhizobacteria inoculation of plants on insect fitness and behaviour. Our findings indicate that rhizobacteria inoculation generally reduces herbivore fitness and affects host choice behaviours. However, effect sizes varied significantly depending on type of herbivore (chewing versus sucking), plant host, and rhizobacterial species. Bacillus spp. showed stronger effects than the commonly studied Pseudomonas spp. Rhizobacteria notably reduced traits such as host choice, leaf consumption, survival, and reproduction of chewing herbivores, while primarily impacting sucking herbivores by reducing reproduction. Single-strain inoculants tended to perform better, especially for sucking herbivores, suggesting potential strain incompatibility issues with multi-strain inoculants. Furthermore, field trials showed less impact on insect fitness reduction compared to experiments under controlled conditions, possibly due to soil diversity and environmental factors affecting inoculant persistence. Despite very limited experimental data, studies observed that inoculation with rhizobacteria can attract parasitoid wasps and predators to the plants, as an additional indirect benefit, but with variable results across the few studies. These results underscore the need for considering broader environmental interactions when developing effective rhizobacteria-based pest management strategies. Understanding specific and generalist rhizosphere interactions can aid in developing synthetic microbial communities with broad protective functions across various plants and environments.

This study aims to explore Airbnb hosts’ perceptions of the crisis management strategies implemented by the platforms and how these perceptions influence their intentions to exit from Airbnb. A conceptual model that illustrates a social exchange mechanism between platform and Airbnb hosts within a crisis context was developed and tested using structural equation modeling. The findings of the study highlight that hosts’ perceptions are shaped through four critical perspectives: supportive climate, interpersonal justice, information justice, and crisis responsibility. These perspectives significantly impact hosts’ trust in the platform, which drives their exit intention. This study further examined the moderating effect of host types—real estate investors, capitalist hosts, and befrienders. The results revealed distinct patterns in how their perceptions of crisis management influenced trust in the platform and exit intention across host types. The findings contribute to theoretical expansion of crisis studies within platform-service providers dynamics and provide actionable insights for strengthening platform resilience in the face of future disruption.

While influenza A(H3N2)-predominant seasons tend to have increased rates of influenza-associated hospitalizations and deaths, little is known about differences in clinical presentation and hospitalization outcomes by influenza type and subtype. Data from hospitalized adults aged ≥18 years in four U.S. states from 2017-2020 were used to evaluate the association between influenza type/subtype and severe influenza presentation and outcomes. Log binomial regression and modified Poisson regression with robust error variance were used to estimate adjusted risk ratios (aRR) for clinical indicators within 24 hours of hospital admission and severity outcomes. Multivariable Cox proportional hazard models were used to estimate adjusted hazard ratios for length of hospital stay and intensive care unit (ICU) stay. All models were adjusted for underlying conditions, age group, influenza vaccination, and site. Patients with influenza A(H1N1) were more likely to be admitted to an ICU (aRR=1.42) than patients with A(H3N2). Patients with influenza A(H1N1) had higher risk of hypoxemia (SpO2 <90%) than patients with A(H3N2) (aRR=1.24) and B (aRR=1.43). Patients with influenza A(H1N1) compared with A(H3N2) also had higher risk of hyponatremia (sodium <135 mmol/L, aRR=1.19) and compared with B had higher risk of fever (>38°C, aRR=1.56). Adult patients hospitalized with influenza A(H1N1) had a higher risk of multiple severity indicators. Better understanding of influenza severity related to both host and virus type are important for reducing the burden of severe influenza in adults.

Zika virus (ZIKV) has caused multiple human outbreaks, with more recent epidemics associated with severe outcomes in infants. Today, ZIKV is endemic to many countries and presents a persistent threat for future epidemics. The host innate immune proteins that regulate ZIKV replication are incompletely defined. We developed a CRISPR knockout screen to identify host factors that impact ZIKV replication, resulting in the finding of angiomotin-like protein 2 (AMOTL2), a protein that inhibits ZIKV by regulating the host type I interferon (IFN) response. AMOTL2 affects IFN signaling by modulating STAT1 levels and activation in response to type I IFN. Thus, AMOTL2, which has largely been studied for its role in cancer, represents an antiviral protein that interacts with the IFN signaling pathway to promote downstream expression of IFN stimulated genes, resulting in restriction of ZIKV.

The nutria (Myocastor coypus), a semi-aquatic rodent native to South America, poses significant ecological and agricultural threats as an invasive species in France, where it continues to proliferate despite sustained control efforts. A fatal case of pneumonia in a nutria from Marseille (France) prompted a microbiological investigation that led to the isolation, taxonomic classification, genomic characterization, and phylogenetic analysis of Necropsobacter rosorum. Whole-genome sequencing of the N. rosorum strain RG01 revealed a genome size of 2,505,657 base pairs and 2303 predicted open reading frames, showing high similarity to other publicly available N. rosorum genomes. Comparative pan-genomic analysis indicated a high level of genomic conservation among N. rosorum strains. The presence of putative virulence factors and a CRISPR-Cas system suggests both pathogenic potential and adaptive defense mechanisms against bacteriophage predation. This study also explored the genetic epidemiology of members of the Pasteurellaceae family, highlighting a considerable overlap between species infecting animals and humans. Among the 408,387 sequence records retrieved from GenBank, 62.1% were deemed suitable for genomic epidemiological analysis. Notably, N. rosorum was underrepresented, with only 13 entries spanning nine countries and three host types, revealing critical gaps in current surveillance and research. Collectively, these findings contribute to a better understanding of the microbiology and epidemiology of N. rosorum and Pasteurellaceae-associated infections, and underscore the importance of integrated, genomics-informed approaches for the monitoring, control, and prevention of zoonotic diseases.

Haemosporidian parasites of birds such as Plasmodium, Haemoproteus, and Leucocytozoon have complex life cycles involving two types of hosts: Vertebrates and invertebrates. The prevalence of these parasites is influenced by the interactions between these hosts and the environment. Birds infected with avian haemosporidians serve as a valuable model for studying the effects of environmental factors on the spread of endemic pathogens. In our study in southern Iran, which is known for its mild winters and hot summers, 237 blood samples from 41 bird species were analyzed. Each sample was analyzed using nested PCR for the cytb gene associated with the genera Haemoproteus, Plasmodium, and Leucocytozoon. The results showed a high infection rate (55. 69%) of parasites, with the Passeridae family having the highest rate (43. 18%). Wind speed, latitude and altitude were the key factors for the prevalence of Haemoproteus, Plasmodium and Leucocytozoon, while longitude, annual precipitation, relative humidity, NDVI index and distance to water were other influencing factors. The migratory status of the host birds had no effect on the prevalence or diversity of the parasites. The study identifies wind speed, latitude and altitude as key factors in the prevalence of Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon and Plasmodium, but other diverse environmental factors also play a role. Further research on avian communities and dipteran vectors in southern Iran is needed to fully understand the environmental factors influencing parasite prevalence.

The diversity, pathogenic spectrum, and ecological significance of arthropod viruses.