Host Race Formation Research Articles

Mating patterns of the European grapevine moth,Lobesia botrana(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in sympatric and allopatric populations

Phytophagous insects have been at the heart of investigations of ecological speciation, and it is clear that adaptation to different host plant species can promote host race formation and insect speciation. However, the evolution of host races has typically been studied at the plant species scale, using sympatric populations of insects that are specialized on particular plant species. Because many crop pest species are adapted to various plant varieties selected from a single plant species, it is of interest to establish whether reproductive barriers could evolve at this much smaller geographical scale, between individuals exploiting different plant varieties. To assess this we evaluated premating and postmating prezygotic barriers among sympatric populations of the European grapevine moth Lobesia botrana originated from different cultivars of the same plant species (Vitis vinifera), and between allopatric populations originated from different geographical sites. We found weak reproductive isolation for sympatric populations of L. botrana, but marked reproductive isolation among allopatric populations. In sympatric populations, the only effect was on the latency period prior to mating, which was longer for heterotypic partners that originated from different cultivars than for homotypic partners originated from the same cultivar. In allopatric populations, reproductive isolation was evident in both premating barriers and postmating prezygotic barriers. In summary, we did not find any trend for sympatric host race formation in L. botrana, but the occurrence of non-random mating patterns between different allopatric populations suggests the beginning of reproductive isolation, which could lead to the evolution of cryptic species of L. botrana.

Differential gene expression according to race and host plant in the pea aphid.

Host-race formation in phytophagous insects is thought to provide the opportunity for local adaptation and subsequent ecological speciation. Studying gene expression differences amongst host races may help to identify phenotypes under (or resulting from) divergent selection and their genetic, molecular and physiological bases. The pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) comprises host races specializing on numerous plants in the Fabaceae and provides a unique system for examining the early stages of diversification along a gradient of genetic and associated adaptive divergence. In this study, we examine transcriptome-wide gene expression both in response to environment and across pea aphid races selected to cover the range of genetic divergence reported in this species complex. We identify changes in expression in response to host plant, indicating the importance of gene expression in aphid-plant interactions. Races can be distinguished on the basis of gene expression, and higher numbers of differentially expressed genes are apparent between more divergent races; these expression differences between host races may result from genetic drift and reproductive isolation and possibly divergent selection. Expression differences related to plant adaptation include a subset of chemosensory and salivary genes. Genes showing expression changes in response to host plant do not make up a large portion of between-race expression differences, providing confirmation of previous studies' findings that genes involved in expression differences between diverging populations or species are not necessarily those showing initial plasticity in the face of environmental change.

Hoverfly preference for high honeydew amounts creates enemy-free space for aphids colonizing novel host plants.

The existence of an enemy-free space can play an important role in aphid host race formation processes, but little is known about the mechanisms that create an area of low predation pressure on particular host plants. In this paper, we identify a mechanism generating lower predation pressure that promotes the maintenance of the different host races of the pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) complex, a well-studied model for ecological speciation. The pea aphid consists of at least 15 genetically distinct host races which are native to specific host plants of the legume family, but can all develop on the universal host plant Vicia faba. Previous work showed that hoverfly (Episyrphus balteatus) oviposition preferences contribute to the enemy-free space that helps to maintain the different pea aphid host races, and that higher amounts of honeydew are more attractive to ovipositing hoverflies. Here we demonstrated that aphid honeydew is produced in large amounts when aphid reproduction rate was highest, and is an important oviposition cue for hoverflies under field conditions. However, on less suitable host plants, where honeydew production is reduced, pea aphids enjoy lower predation rates. A reduction in enemy pressure can mitigate the performance disadvantages of aphids colonizing a novel host and probably plays an important role in pea aphid host race formation.

Population structure of a vector-borne plant parasite.

Parasites are among the most diverse groups of life on Earth, yet complex natural histories often preclude studies of their speciation processes. The biology of parasitic plants facilitates insitu collection of data on both genetic structure and the mechanisms responsible for that structure. Here, we studied the role of mating, dispersal and establishment in host race formation of a parasitic plant. We investigated the population genetics of a vector-borne desert mistletoe (Phoradendron californicum) across two legume host tree species (Senegalia greggii and Prosopis velutina) in the Sonoran desert using microsatellites. Consistent with host race formation, we found strong host-associated genetic structure in sympatry, little genetic variation due to geographic site and weak isolation by distance. We hypothesize that genetic differentiation results from differences in the timing of mistletoe flowering by host species, as we found initial flowering date of individual mistletoes correlated with genetic ancestry. Hybrids with intermediate ancestry were detected genetically. Individuals likely resulting from recent, successful establishment events following dispersal between the host species were detected at frequencies similar to hybrids between host races. Therefore, barriers to gene flow between the host races may have been stronger at mating than at dispersal. We also found higher inbreeding and within-host individual relatedness values for mistletoes on the more rare and isolated host species (S.greggii). Our study spanned spatial scales to address how interactions with both vectors and hosts influence parasitic plant structure with implications for parasite virulence evolution and speciation.

Do differences in life-history traits and the timing of peak mating activity between host-associated populations of Chilo suppressalis have a genetic basis?

The development of host races, genetically distinct populations of the same species with different hosts, is considered to be the initial stage of ecological speciation. Ecological and biological differences consistent with host race formation have been reported between water‐oat and rice‐associated populations of Chilo suppressalis. In order to confirm whether these differences have a genetic basis, we conducted experiments to determine the extent to which various life‐history traits and the time of peak mating activity of these populations were influenced by the species of host plant larvae were raised on. Individuals from each population were reared for three consecutive generations on either water‐oat fruit pulp or rice seedlings. Descendants of both populations had higher larval survival rates, shorter larval developmental periods, higher pupal weight, and longer adult forewings, when reared on water‐oats than when reared on rice. The time of peak of mating activity differed between the descendants of each population, irrespective of whether they were raised on water‐oats or rice. These results indicate that although some life‐history traits of host‐associated populations of C. suppressalis are influenced by the host plant larvae are raised on, time of peak mating activity is not. Because it is a stable, objective, phenotypic trait, further research on difference in the time of peak mating activity between host‐associated populations of C. suppressalis should be conducted to clarify the mechanism responsible for host race formation in this species.

Genetic architecture underlying host choice differentiation in the sympatric host races of Lochmaea capreae leaf beetles.

Speciation in herbivorous insects has received considerable attention during the last few decades. Much of this group's diversity originates from adaptive population divergence onto different host plants, which often involves the evolution of specialized patterns of host choice behaviour. Differences in host choice often translates directly into divergence in mating sites, and therefore positive assortative mating will be created which will act as a strong barrier to gene flow. In this study, we first explored whether host choice is a genetically determined trait in the sympatric willow and birch host races of the leaf feeding beetle Lochmaea capreae, or whether larval experience influences adult host choice. Once we had established that host choice is a genetically based trait we determined its genetic architecture. To achieve this, we employed a reciprocal transplant design in which offspring from pure willow and birch cross-types, F1, F2 and backcrosses were raised on each host plant and their preference was determined upon reaching adulthood. We then applied joint-scaling analysis to uncover the genetic architecture of host preference. Our results suggest that rearing host does not have a pronounced effect on adult's host choice; rather the segregation pattern implies the existence of genetic loci affecting host choice in these host races. The joint-scaling analysis revealed that population differences in host choice are mainly influenced by the contribution of additive genetic effects and also maternally inherited cytoplasmic effects. We explore the implications of our findings for evolutionary dynamics of sympatric host race formation and speciation.

Reproductive Interference and Niche Partitioning in Aphidophagous Insects

The range and quality of prey species differ greatly among closely related species of predators. However, the factors responsible for this diversified niche utilization are unclear. This is because the predation and resource competition do not always prevent species coexistence. In this paper, we present evidence in support of reproductive interference as a driver of niche partitioning, focusing on aphidophagous insect. Firstly, we present closely related generalist and specialist species pairs in aphidophagous lacewings to compare the reproductive interference hypothesis with two other hypotheses that have been proposed to explain niche partitioning in lacewings and sympatric speciation through host race formation and sexual selection. Secondly, we present a case study that shows how reproductive interference can drive niche partitioning in sibling ladybird species. Thirdly, we show that many ladybird genera include species inhabiting the same region but having different food and habitat preferences, raising the possibility that reproductive interference might occur in these groups. Finally, we show that intraguild predation cannot always explain the niche partitioning in aphidophagous insects including hoverflies and parasitoids. On the basis of the evidence presented, we urge that future studies investigating predator communities should take account of the role of reproductive interference.

Female butterflies adapt and allocate their progeny to the host-plant quality of their own larval experience.

Recent studies with diverse taxa have shown that parents can utilize their experience of the environment to adapt their offspring's phenotype to the same environmental conditions. Thus, offspring would then perform best under environmental conditions experienced by their parents due to transgenerational phenotypic plasticity. Such an effect has been dubbed transgenerational acclimatization. However, evidence that parents can subsequently ensure the appropriate environmental conditions in order that offspring benefit from transgenerational acclimatization has never been demonstrated. We reared Pieris rapae larvae in the parental generation on high-nitrogen and low-nitrogen host plants, and reared the offspring (F1) of both treatments again on high- and low-nitrogen plants. Furthermore, we tested if females prefer to oviposit on high- or low-nitrogen host plants in two-way choice tests. We here show not only that females adapt their offspring's phenotype to the host-plant quality that they themselves experienced, but that females also mainly oviposit on the host quality to which they adapt their offspring. Moreover, effects of larval host plant on oviposition preference of females increased across two generations in F1-females acclimatized to low-nitrogen host plants, showing an adaptive host shift from one generation to the next. These findings may have profound implications for host-race formation and sympatric speciation.

Differences in performance and transcriptome‐wide gene expression associated with Rhagoletis (Diptera: Tephritidae) larvae feeding in alternate host fruit environments

Host race formation, the establishment of new populations using novel resources, is a major hypothesized mechanism of ecological speciation, especially in plant-feeding insects. The initial stages of host race formation will often involve phenotypic plasticity on the novel resource, with subsequent genetically based adaptations enhancing host-associated fitness differences. Several studies have explored the physiology of the plastic responses of insects to novel host environments. However, the mechanisms underlying evolved differences among host races and species remain poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate a reciprocal larval performance difference between two closely related species of Rhagoletis flies, R.pomonella and R.zephyria, specialized for feeding in apple and snowberry fruit, respectively. Microarray analysis of fly larvae feeding in apples versus snowberries revealed patterns of transcriptome-wide differential gene expression consistent with both plastic and evolved responses to the different fruit resources, most notably for detoxification-related genes such as cytochrome p450s. Transcripts exhibiting evolved expression differences between species tended to also demonstrate plastic responses to fruit environment. The observed pattern suggests that Rhagoletis larvae exhibit extensive plasticity in gene expression in response to novel fruit that may potentiate shifts to new hosts. Subsequent selection, particularly selection to suppress initially costly plastic responses, could account for the evolved expression differences observed between R.pomonella and R.zephyria, creating specialized races and new fly species. Thus, genetically based ecological adaptations generating new biodiversity may often evolve from initial plastic responses in gene expression to the challenges posed by novel environments.

Dynamics of copy number variation in host races of the pea aphid.

Copy number variation (CNV) makes a major contribution to overall genetic variation and is suspected to play an important role in adaptation. However, aside from a few model species, the extent of CNV in natural populations has seldom been investigated. Here, we report on CNV in the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum, a powerful system for studying the genetic architecture of host-plant adaptation and speciation thanks to multiple host races forming a continuum of genetic divergence. Recent studies have highlighted the potential importance of chemosensory genes, including the gustatory and olfactory receptor gene families (Gr and Or, respectively), in the process of host race formation. We used targeted resequencing to achieve a very high depth of coverage, and thereby revealed the extent of CNV of 434 genes, including 150 chemosensory genes, in 104 individuals distributed across eight host races of the pea aphid. We found that CNV was widespread in our global sample, with a significantly higher occurrence in multigene families, especially in Ors. We also observed a decrease in the gene probability of being completely duplicated or deleted (CDD) with increase in coding sequence length. Genes with CDD variants were usually more polymorphic for copy number, especially in the P450 gene family where toxin resistance may be related to gene dosage. We found that Gr were overrepresented among genes discriminating host races, as were CDD genes and pseudogenes. Our observations shed new light on CNV dynamics and are consistent with CNV playing a role in both local adaptation and speciation.

Global genetic differentiation in a cosmopolitan pest of stored beans: effects of geography, host-plant usage and anthropogenic factors.

Genetic differentiation can be promoted allopatrically by geographic isolation of populations due to limited dispersal ability and diversification over time or sympatrically through, for example, host-race formation. In crop pests, the trading of crops across the world can lead to intermixing of genetically distinct pest populations. However, our understanding of the importance of allopatric and sympatric genetic differentiation in the face of anthropogenic genetic intermixing is limited. Here, we examined global sequence variation in two mitochondrial and one nuclear genes in the seed beetle Callosobruchus maculatus that uses different legumes as hosts. We analyzed 180 samples from 42 populations of this stored bean pest from tropical and subtropical continents and archipelagos: Africa, the Middle East, South and Southeast Asia, Oceania and South America. For the mitochondrial genes, there was weak but significant genetic differentiation across continents/archipelagos. Further, we found pronounced differentiation among subregions within continents/archipelagos both globally and within Africa but not within Asia. We suggest that multiple introductions into Asia and subsequent intermixing within Asia have generated this pattern. The isolation by distance hypothesis was supported globally (with or without continents controlled) but not when host species was restricted to cowpeas Vigna unguiculata, the ancestral host of C. maculatus. We also document significant among-host differentiation both globally and within Asia, but not within Africa. We failed to reject a scenario of a constant population size in the recent past combined with selective neutrality for the mitochondrial genes. We conclude that mitochondrial DNA differentiation is primarily due to geographic isolation within Africa and to multiple invasions by different alleles, followed by host shifts, within Asia. The weak inter-continental differentiation is most likely due to frequent inter-continental gene flow mediated by human crop trade.

Ecological adaptation and reproductive isolation in sympatry: genetic and phenotypic evidence for native host races of Rhagoletis pomonella

Ecological speciation with gene flow may be an important mode of diversification for phytophagous insects. The recent shift of Rhagoletis pomonella from its native host downy hawthorn (Crataegus mollis) to introduced apple (Malus domestica) in the northeastern United States is a classic example of sympatric host race formation. Here, we test whether R. pomonella has similarly formed host races on four native Crataegus species in the southern United States: western mayhaw (C. opaca), blueberry hawthorn (C. brachyacantha), southern red hawthorn (C. mollis var. texana) and green hawthorn (C. viridis). These four southern hosts differ from each other in their fruiting phenology and in the volatile compounds emitted from the surface of their fruits. These two traits form the basis of ecological reproductive isolation between downy hawthorn and apple flies in the north. We report evidence from microsatellite population surveys and eclosion studies supporting the existence of genetically differentiated and partially reproductively isolated host races of southern hawthorn flies. The results provide an example of host shifting and ecological divergence involving native plants and imply that speciation with gene flow may be commonly initiated in Rhagoletis when ecological opportunity presents itself.

Testing local host adaptation and phenotypic plasticity in a herbivore when alternative related host plants occur sympatrically.

Host race formation in phytophagous insects can be an early stage of adaptive speciation. However, the evolution of phenotypic plasticity in host use is another possible outcome. Using a reciprocal transplant experiment we tested the hypothesis of local adaptation in the aphid Brevicoryne brassicae. Aphid genotypes derived from two sympatric host plants, Brassica oleracea and B. campestris, were assessed in order to measure the extent of phenotypic plasticity in morphological and life history traits in relation to the host plants. We obtained an index of phenotypic plasticity for each genotype. Morphological variation of aphids was summarized by principal components analysis. Significant effects of recipient host on morphological variation and life history traits (establishment, age at first reproduction, number of nymphs, and intrinsic growth rate) were detected. We did not detected genotype × host plant interaction; in general the genotypes developed better on B. campestris, independent of the host plant species from which they were collected. Therefore, there was no evidence to suggest local adaptation. Regarding plasticity, significant differences among genotypes in the index of plasticity were detected. Furthermore, significant selection on PC1 (general aphid body size) on B. campestris, and on PC1 and PC2 (body length relative to body size) on B. oleracea was detected. The elevation of the reaction norm of PC1 and the slope of the reaction norm for PC2 (i.e., plasticity) were under directional selection. Thus, host plant species constitute distinct selective environments for B. brassicae. Aphid genotypes expressed different phenotypes in response to the host plant with low or nil fitness costs. Phenotypic plasticity and gene flow limits natural selection for host specialization promoting the maintenance of genetic variation in host exploitation.

Behavioral Assays for Studies of Host Plant Choice and Adaptation in Herbivorous Insects

The association of insect herbivores with their host plants is influenced by behaviors governing acceptance of those plants for feeding and oviposition. Behavioral changes accompany and may even precede host range expansion. Characterization and quantification of specific behaviors often form the basis of studies on host plant adaptation and chemical ecology. Behavioral assays of insects are usually designed to measure attraction for feeding or oviposition in relation to their host plants or specific chemistry. We review behavioral assays of insect herbivores with host plants or the volatiles they emit, with special consideration given to design, analysis, and interpretation to maximize ecological relevance. A toolkit of robust assays can help address fundamental issues at the intersection of ecology and evolution, such as the underpinnings of plant-insect interactions and the identification of genes involved in host race formation.

Transgenerational acclimatization in an herbivore–host plant relationship

Twenty years ago, scientists began to recognize that parental effects are one of the most important influences on progeny phenotype. Consequently, it was postulated that herbivorous insects could produce progeny that are acclimatized to the host plant experienced by the parents to improve progeny fitness, because host plants vary greatly in quality and quantity, and can thus provide important cues about the resources encountered by the next generation. However, despite the possible profound implications for our understanding of host-use evolution of herbivores, host-race formation and sympatric speciation, intense research has been unable to verify transgenerational acclimatization in herbivore-host plant relationships. We reared Coenonympha pamphilus larvae in the parental generation (P) on high- and low-quality host plants, and reared the offspring (F(1)) of both treatments again on high- and low-quality plants. We tested not only for maternal effects, as most previous studies, but also for paternal effects. Our results show that parents experiencing predictive cues on their host plant can indeed adjust progeny's phenotype to anticipated host plant quality. Maternal effects affected female and male offspring, whereas paternal effects affected only male progeny. We here verify, for the first time to our knowledge, the long postulated transgenerational acclimatization in an herbivore-host plant interaction.

The Geographic Distribution of Rhagoletis pomonella (Diptera: Tephritidae) in the Western United States: Introduced Species or Native Population?

ABSTBACT The apple maggot fly, Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh (Diptera: Tephritidae), is a major pest of commercially grown domesticated apple (Malus domestica Borkhausen) in North America. The shift of the fly from its native host hawthorn (Crataegus mollis) to apple in the eastern United States is often cited as an example of incipient sympatric speciation in action. However, R. pomonella is also present in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States where it infests apple, native black hawthorn (Crataegus douglasii), and introduced English ornamental hawthorn (C. monogyna). It is believed that R. pomonella was introduced to the Portland, OR, area via larval-infested apples from the east. The fly subsequently spread through the region, shifting onto black hawthorn and ornamental hawthorn as additional hosts as it spread. It is also possible, however, that R. pomonella is native to black hawthorn in the Pacific Northwest and switched to infest apple and ornamental hawthorn after the introduction of these two alternative hosts to the region. Here, we document the distribution of R. pomonella through the Pacific Northwest and Rocky Mountain states of the western United States to help clarify the origin (s) of the fly outside the eastern United States. We report a distribution pattern consistent with the hypothesis that R. pomonella was introduced to the Pacific Northwest via infested apples. In particular, the low levels or lack of C. dougliasii-infesting R. pomonella east of the Cascade Mountains in the states of Washington, OR, and Idaho implies that the fly is not native on black hawthorn and is of recent origin. We discuss the evolutionary and applied implications of the results with respect to our current understanding of host race formation and control for R. pomonella.

Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of Busseola segeta Bowden (Lepidoptera; Noctuidae): A Case Study of Host Use Diversification in Guineo-Congolian Rainforest Relic Area, Kenya.

Habitat modification and fragmentation are considered as some of the factors that drive organism distribution and host use diversification. Indigenous African stem borer pests are thought to have diversified their host ranges to include maize [Zea mays L.] and sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] in response to their increased availability through extensive cultivation. However, management efforts have been geared towards reducing pest populations in the cultivated fields with few attempts to understand possible evolution of "new" pest species. Recovery and growing persistence of Busseola segeta Bowden on maize (Zea mays L.) in Kakamega called for studies on the role of wild host plants on the invasion of crops by wild borer species. A two-year survey was carried out in a small agricultural landscape along the edge of Kakamega forest (Kenya) to assess host range and population genetic structure of B. segeta. The larvae of B. segeta were found on nine different plant species with the majority occurring on maize and sorghum. Of forty cytochrome b haplotypes identified, twenty-three occurred in both wild and cultivated habitats. The moths appear to fly long distances across the habitats with genetic analyses revealing weak differentiation between hosts in different habitats (FST = 0.016; p = 0.015). However, there was strong evidence of variation in genetic composition between growing seasons in the wild habitat (FST = 0.060; p < 0.001) with emergence or disappearance of haplotypes between habitats. Busseola segeta is an example of a phytophagous insect that utilizes plants with a human induced distribution range, maize, but does not show evidence of host race formation or reduction of gene flow among populations using different hosts. However, B. segeta is capable of becoming an important pest in the area and the current low densities may be attributed to the general low infestation levels and presence of a wide range of alternative hosts in the area.

The Gall MidgeAsphondylia borrichiae(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae): An Indigenous Example of Host-Associated Genetic Divergence in Sympatry

Speciation usually is conceptualized as occurring via three biogeographic modes: allopatry, parapatry, and sympatry. Sympatric speciation has been the most controversial because of the difficulty of developing plausible theoretical models in which the homogenizing effects of gene flow are sufficiently overcome to permit genetic divergence to occur in the absence of geographic barriers restricting gene flow. Recently, a number of hypothetical models for sympatric speciation have been advanced and several candidate study systems have provided evidence of sympatric divergence, although many of the systems so identified involve introduced species, especially in the cases of host-race formation in phytophagous insects, which expand their host range and use a novel host. Although these cases demonstrate the reality of sympatric divergence, they do not address which mode of speciation predominates in indigenous communities. Asphondylia borrichiae Rossi & Strong has been proposed as a potential example of sympatric divergence in a fully indigenous system, based on the results of a host-choice experiment involving three host-plant species. In the current study, we report significant differences in the genetic composition of midge populations collected from each host in situ, supporting the hypothesis of sympatric genetic divergence among the morphologically identical host-associated populations of A. borrichiae and consistent with host fidelity in oviposition choice.

BEHAVIORAL EVIDENCE FOR FRUIT ODOR DISCRIMINATION AND SYMPATRIC HOST RACES OFRHAGOLETIS POMONELLAFLIES IN THE WESTERN UNITED STATES

The recent shift of Rhagoletis pomonella (Diptera: Tephritidae) from its native host downy hawthorn, Crataegus mollis, to introduced domesticated apple, Malus domestica, in the eastern United States is a model for sympatric host race formation. However, the fly is also present in the western United States, where it may have been introduced via infested apples within the last 60 years. In addition to apple, R. pomonella also infests two hawthorns in the West, one the native black hawthorn, C. douglasii, and the other the introduced English ornamental hawthorn, C. monogyna. Here, we test for behavioral evidence of host races in the western United States. through flight tunnel assays of western R. pomonella flies to host fruit volatile blends. We report that western apple, black hawthorn, and ornamental hawthorn flies showed significantly increased levels of upwind-directed flight to their respective natal compared to nonnatal fruit volatile blends, consistent with host race status. We discuss the implications of the behavioral results for the origin(s) of western R. pomonella, including the possibility that western apple flies were not introduced, but may represent a recent shift from local hawthorn fly populations.

Phenology of &lt;I&gt;Dasineura oxycoccana&lt;/I&gt; (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) on Cranberry and Blueberry Indicates Potential for Gene Flow

Dasineura oxycoccana (Johnson) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) is a pest of cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon (Aiton) (Ericales: Ericaceae), and highbush blueberry, Vaccinium corymbosum (L.) (Ericales: Ericaceae), in North America. In British Columbia, Canada, D. oxycoccana was first found on highbush blueberry in 1991 and then on cranberry seven years later. Because many cranberry and highbush blueberry farms are adjacent to one another, we hypothesized that D. oxycoccana was moving from highbush blueberry onto cranberry. Cranberry and highbush blueberry differ in phenology, and adaptation to these different phenologies may result in host races or cryptic species on these two crops. We recognized the alternative hypothesis that D. oxycoccana had arrived as immature stages with cranberry vines imported from another region of North America. During spring and summer, we recorded the phenology of D. oxycoccana and the development of plant shoots from three cranberry and three highbush blueberry farms to determine whether the opportunity exists for successful movement of D. oxycoccana between the two crops. Our results show that D. oxycoccana from cranberry and highbush blueberry overlap in phenology for much of the season, indicating a high potential for movement and gene flow. However, differences were seen in number of larvae per shoot, location of pupae, and heat unit accumulation during larval development suggesting that instead there may be the potential for host race or cryptic species formation.