Host Country Research Articles

The total number of refugees on a global scale remains a profoundly troubling reality. Conflicts, persecution, climate-related displacement, and fragile state systems continue to push millions into forced migration, leaving them in prolonged situations of uncertainty. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has highlighted three recognized durable solutions aimed at addressing refugeehood: voluntary repatriation, third-country resettlement, and local integration. The intent of these solutions is not only to provide instantaneous respite but also to preserve the dignity of the millions of forcefully displaced people. This paper aims to investigate the level of the effectiveness and overall durability of these solutions by employing the method of a critical literature review. Through the findings, there appears to be a considerable imbalance in the preference and attention given to each of these approaches. Often regarded as the most expedient and preferred solution, voluntary repatriation is considered to be a politically necessary and cost-effective option widely accepted and implemented by host states and, by extension, the international community. Despite this, the reality tells a different tale: repatriation is usually less feasible because of the propensity of countries of origin to be generally unsafe and precarious for refugees who originally fled for safety concerns. Third-country resettlement and local integration are also durable solutions, but they have received little attention and endorsement. Only a small fraction of refugees receives opportunities for resettlement, and integration is often impeded by the persistent problems of socio-political resistance and weak policies and implementation. This imbalance constitutes the premise of the intractable problem of refugeehood in recent times. This paper concluded by offering recommendations that centre on the imperativeness of re-evaluating the priorities of key players such as states, especially host countries, and international agencies. To draw closer to mitigating refugeehood, it is important to focus more on developing opportunities for resettlement and integration.

ABSTRACT Clandestine migration is not only a response to precarious living conditions but also driven by aspirations and desires for change that migrants carry into their journeys. Yet, far less is known about what becomes of these subjective driving forces once people reach their destinations and settle down. To address this gap, this study explores how Syrian parents who risked crossing the Mediterranean to reach Europe interpret their migration from the standpoint of their settled lives. This perspective allows for tracing how the reasoning behind the risky decision evolved—from its origins in Syria (or the first country of asylum) to reflections rooted in the host countries of Sweden and Denmark. Across these spatial and temporal shifts, parents' narratives reveal the contradictory values they attach to migration, shaped by the complex dynamics of parent–child relationships. These contradictions are examined through the lens of the moral theory of risk. From this perspective, the notion of virtuous risking for the sake of one's children—initially central to parents' justification of their decision—gradually loses significance within the context of their new lives in Europe. This dynamic lies at the core of the evolving meanings parents attach to both risk and migration.

The shift to a digitalized health system brings particular challenges for immigrant mothers who experience a triple adaptation: becoming a mother, navigating a new healthcare system and using technology. This study aims to explore digital health literacy barriers perceived by immigrant mothers and facilitators that could sustain their empowerment related to their health and that of their family. An ethnographic study based on the socioecological model was used to analyze data collected from three individual interviews and two focus groups. The results of the interviews and focus groups allowed us to understand the cultural impact of the lack of digital literacy in the context of healthcare for immigrant mothers in their host country, as well as the barriers and facilitators to access and use digital health information. This study identifies individual, organizational and global level barriers to accessing digital health services amongst immigrant mothers. It also highlighted potential strategies that could support their empowerment in accessing and using digital health resources for their health and that of their family. For instance, training and coaching to help immigrant mothers navigate the health care system are needed. It is also important to adapt public policies to better support the integration of immigrant families in their host country.

BackgroundHighly educated individuals migrating to a new host country without work accreditation face various stressors that impact their health. Among them is the long waiting time for their integration as a resourceful workforce. In this study, we piloted a work-related intervention aimed at improving the health of highly educated migrants. We hypothesize that by including migrants in meaningful working-related activities, their self-rated health (SRH) and other health outcomes will improve.MethodsThis is a non-randomized intervention pilot study examining the changes in participants’ health using an explanatory sequential design for evaluation. Baseline data was collected in Bergen for the intervention group and Kristiansand for the control group in 2023, with follow-up data collected after six months. The intervention consisted of working as assistant teachers at various health education programs at university level in Bergen for six months. Both groups answered a questionnaire that included SRH measured by a single validated item and other health measures. We calculated prevalence proportions and ratios, and differences in means using generalized estimating equations with 95% confidence intervals (CI), to estimate the changes in health outcomes adjusting for baseline confounders. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the intervention group (N = 15) to gain deeper understanding of changes in health or other effects of the intervention.ResultsFifteen participants in the intervention and 62 in the control group completed both questionnaires. We found no changes between the groups in SRH, but significant improvements in general mental health measured with the crude General Health Questionnaire-12 (GHQ-12) -0.07 (-0.11;-0.03) and improved well-being measured with the adjusted World Health Organization-5 Well-Being Index (WHO-5) 0.09 (0.01;0.17) in the intervention group. Qualitative data indicated a positive intervention experience, explained by renewed self-confidence, family pride, improved stress management, empowerment and increased physical activity.ConclusionOur pilot study suggested positive health changes from a work-related intervention in terms of improved general mental health and well-being. Quantitative and qualitative data were complementary. For confirmation of effects, this pilot study should be upscaled with a randomized trial design.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-025-25025-9.

Human populations are always moving within and between countries, setting differential patterns of migration. However, there is a lack of representation of migrants and immigrants in genetics research, which hinders scientific discovery and exacerbates health disparities. This Perspective examines challenges to equitable participation and proposes actionable strategies to enhance inclusion. Drawing from a comprehensive review of recruitment approaches, we advocate for community-centered, digitally enhanced and culturally responsive strategies, including partnerships with community organizations, trusted cultural spaces and multilingual outreach. Integrating migrants into research conducted in host countries is both cost-effective and essential for enhancing genetic heterogeneity in study samples, as it allows for the inclusion of globally diverse populations without the logistical and financial burdens of conducting international recruitment. By embracing inclusive, community-driven approaches that reflect the realities of global mobility, the field can produce more generalizable genomic knowledge.

The past decades of war and armed conflict in have created an acute humanitarian crisis with restricted population access to food, clean water and basic services including healthcare and medicines. Assuming people have a desire for choice and control over their own health, they can become engaged, informed, collaborative, committed and tolerant of uncertainty. Critically, the refugee population cannot be at this level of empowerment whilst experiencing the stress of resettlement. These are people who are sometimes identified as high need clients due to the length of time spent in refugee camps, their lack of personal support networks and the additional assistance and resources needed to address the settlement challenges they. Oral diseases (i.e. dental caries and periodontitis) are a major contributor to the global burden of chronic disease. Although the prevalence of these diseases differed between the studies, the levels of diseases were always higher for refugees compared to levels reported for the wider populations of the host countries. For these reasons, better knowledge and professional assessment of dental treatment were strongly recommended for this population.

Major sports events provide a unique opportunity for the host country to enhance its image. The Qatari leadership spared no effort in maximizing the potential of the 2022 World Cup in order to do so. Rather than being a new idea, however, Qatar had already used the same method in the 1970s during the reign of the current Amir’s grandfather, Shaikh Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani. The sports achievements of the 1970s and 1980s were highlighted by the current Qatari leadership for contemporary needs. This article examines Qatar’s “invented traditions” since 2013, when Shaikh Tamim became Amir: the creation of new versions of Qatar’s traditions and history to use a re-imagined past for contemporary purposes of state- and nation-building. To fully understand contemporary politics in Qatar, one must understand how Qatar has re-framed its past.

The Indian diaspora, a dynamic and diverse global community, plays a pivotal role in both the preservation and transformation of cultural identities. This paper investigates how the Indian diaspora upholds traditional cultural practices while also adapting and evolving these practices within new socio-cultural environments. Through case studies from various countries, the research highlights how Indian immigrants and their descendants navigate their cultural heritage, striving to maintain traditional values while integrating new influences from their host countries. Key factors in sustaining cultural identities include community organizations, religious institutions, and cultural festivals. The paper also explores the transformative aspects of the diaspora experience, such as the blending of cultural practices, the development of hybrid identities, and the emergence of new cultural expressions. Diaspora literature, thriving in both English and native Indian languages, plays an integral role in exploring these complexities of cultural identity. While literature in English gains wider recognition, works in native languages face challenges due to market dominance. Despite these difficulties, there are increasing efforts to highlight diasporic literature in native languages, which enhances understanding of Indian society and culture and reflects the evolving nature of identity in the context of global migration. The findings emphasize the complex relationship between preservation and transformation, illustrating how the Indian diaspora contributes to a global cultural mosaic while continuously reshaping their cultural narratives. This study provides valuable insights into diaspora dynamics and cultural identity in an increasingly interconnected world.

We examine how multinational enterprise (MNE) strategies in Latin America’s critical mineral sector are shaped by the interplay of U.S.–China geopolitical rivalry and host-country regulations. China’s Belt and Road Initiative supports the expansion of Chinese investments but with limitations, while U.S. polices and the Minerals Security Partnership may discourage collaboration with Chinese firms and promote partnerships among U.S. and allied companies, especially those targeting the U.S. market. Latin American governments adopt varying approaches, from Bolivia and Chile’s resource nationalism to Argentina’s open-market model, but most engage both blocs strategically to advance national interests. We offer guidance for MNEs navigating the shifting geopolitical and regulatory landscape.

Globally, the number of refugees and asylum seekers has reached unprecedented levels, prompting many host countries to adopt immigration detention as a strategy to deter unauthorised arrivals. While previous studies have largely used quantitative methods to examine the consequences of detention, this is the first qualitative systematic review synthesising evidence on the impact of immigration detention on the mental and physical health of adult and child asylum seekers and refugees (ASR) in middle- to high-income host countries. A systematic search of medical, allied health, and social science databases and grey literature was conducted between December 2021 and October 2024 (Embase, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, CINAHL Plus, Global Health, APA PsycARTICLES, Social Policy and Practice, Cochrane Library, Scopus, and Open Grey). Reference lists of included studies were also screened. The review was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42022328867). Study selection, critical appraisal, and data extraction were performed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Checklist for Qualitative Research. Of 2,512 records identified, 564 full texts were assessed, and 20 studies met the inclusion criteria, comprising 374 adults and 139 children with current or past detention experiences, with detention durations ranging from two weeks to 38 months. Thematic synthesis revealed five overarching themes: human rights violations within detention; systemic failures of healthcare provision and resultant vulnerability; adverse health impacts of detention; changes in self-concept, relationships, and worldview after release; and enduring negative consequences for mental and physical health. Findings highlight that immigration detention uniformly undermines the health and well-being of ASR, with effects persisting long after release. This review underscores the urgent need for health and human rights to be central considerations in migration policy and practice.

Abstract Does mining activity lead to deforestation? How does investor origin affect the environmental impacts of mining operations? We investigate these questions by estimating the causal impact of mineral price changes on deforestation near mining sites. Combining global mine propertylevel data with high-resolution satellite imagery on forest cover, we find a positive elasticity of deforestation to mineral price shocks. This elasticity is significantly lower when mine owners are from countries with higher income or better institutions, but it is not affected by host country characteristics. Evidence suggests that mine owners from higher-income countries induce different types of local economic activity.

Historically, the US exerted dominant structural power in global finance –‎especially via its integration in the wider Anglosphere. We analyze granular ‎data for 10 segments – from portfolio and foreign direct investment to foreign ‎exchange reserves – to assess the power positions of the Anglosphere, the ‎EU, China, and Japan. On balance, the structural power of the Anglosphere in‎ global finance has endured and even increased between 2008 and 2023. China’s‎ financial power has risen slightly, albeit from a very low level, whereas ‎the structural power of the EU in global finance has decreased. One important‎ aspect of the Anglosphere’s structural power is to be found in its large share of ‎global foreign exchange reserves. An additional feature is a positive feedback ‎loop between the large profits generated by Forbes 2000 corporations based‎ in the Anglosphere (primarily large and dominant US technology firms) and‎ the persistent structural power that their host countries exert in global finance.‎ To substantiate our argument, we provide a unique calculation of Forbes 2000‎share of profits generated by MNCs based in the Anglosphere, China, the EU,‎ and Japan. Moreover, three novel network visualizations show the enduring‎ centrality of the US-led Anglosphere in key segments of global finance until‎2022. Finally, we discuss challenges to the Anglosphere’s structural power ‎caused by the second Trump Administration.‎‎

Globally, the number of refugees and asylum seekers has reached unprecedented levels, prompting many host countries to adopt immigration detention as a strategy to deter unauthorised arrivals. While previous studies have largely used quantitative methods to examine the consequences of detention, this is the first qualitative systematic review synthesising evidence on the impact of immigration detention on the mental and physical health of adult and child asylum seekers and refugees (ASR) in middle- to high-income host countries. A systematic search of medical, allied health, and social science databases and grey literature was conducted between December 2021 and October 2024 (Embase, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, CINAHL Plus, Global Health, APA PsycARTICLES, Social Policy and Practice, Cochrane Library, Scopus, and Open Grey). Reference lists of included studies were also screened. The review was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42022328867). Study selection, critical appraisal, and data extraction were performed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Checklist for Qualitative Research. Of 2,512 records identified, 564 full texts were assessed, and 20 studies met the inclusion criteria, comprising 374 adults and 139 children with current or past detention experiences, with detention durations ranging from two weeks to 38 months. Thematic synthesis revealed five overarching themes: human rights violations within detention; systemic failures of healthcare provision and resultant vulnerability; adverse health impacts of detention; changes in self-concept, relationships, and worldview after release; and enduring negative consequences for mental and physical health. Findings highlight that immigration detention uniformly undermines the health and well-being of ASR, with effects persisting long after release. This review underscores the urgent need for health and human rights to be central considerations in migration policy and practice.

In the context of globalisation and inclusiveness, Multinational Corporations (MNCs) are paying more attention to their management practices regarding Gender Equality (GE) and workplace diversity. Further, corporations are starting to realise the importance of advocating their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) to sustain their global status in this interconnected world. For MNCs, this topic is particularly pertinent and challenging, as they have to adapt to the cultural and institutional differences among their subsidiaries in host countries. By critically reviewing the literature within the recent 3-5 years, this paper summarises key drivers of gender inequality (especially for the low representation of females in leadership roles) in cross-cultural management, extensively illustrating how culture can be used as a moderator during GE's strategic movement. Research suggests that adopting proper GE policy in host countries not only influences MNCs legitimacy but also brings extra strategic value to the business, including global talent absorption, innovation, and productivity enhancement. However, there are still numerous challenges for MNCs to implement the GE strategy in the current dynamic due to cultural uniqueness, misconceptions of gender roles, and transparent communication deficiencies across the organisation. This paper aims to provide novel insights and approaches for international human resources practitioners to address gender inequality, such as fostering cultural affinity and creating new roles, and to inspire future academics to focus on the positive aspects of cultural differences.

Labour migration from Central and Eastern Europe plays a significant role in the labour market of the European Union, yet few studies examine the direction and extent of occupational mobility triggered by migration. This study introduces a new analytical tool, the Career Benefit Index, which measures the direction of change in occupational status between the labour markets of the country of origin and the host country. The tool also enables the assessment of sociological factors that explain these changes. The index was developed using data from Hungarian workers living in Austria and Germany. The analysis revealed that educational attainment has no significant impact on career mobility. In contrast, demographic factors such as gender, age, and particularly very high-level German language proficiency strongly influence career trajectories. The index demonstrates that labour market capacities play a limited role in shaping migrants’ career paths, as the host labour markets tend to “evaluate” migrant workers primarily based on their linguistic and demographic attributes. The index and the findings contribute to a deeper understanding of labour market integration among Central and Eastern European migrants and may offer new directions for migration and employment policy analysis.

Abstract This study explores the critical implications of the absence of Cross-Border Pension Portability (CBPP) schemes for Ghanaian migrants residing in the Bronx, New York, illuminating the complexity of their return migration intentions in the absence of CBPP. Drawing on neoclassical economic labour migration theory and the social protection theory, we built a foundation on how past integrational challenges increase the chances of return migration and the significance of CBPP as asafety net for migrant's accumulated social security. We conducted in-depth interviews with 28 Ghanaian migrants to examine how these past integrational challenges, which have already increased their chances of return, are compounded by the absence of a CBPP agreement, which causes a fear of losing their pension benefit on return. The study examines their experiences as they make such complex decisions towards their retirement. Our findings reveal that many migrants prolong their stay in the U.S. to obtain citizenship, which is essential for accessing pension benefits abroad without restrictions. This extended stay disrupts their retirement plans and compels them to extend their work life further to supplement their meagre pension benefit, which is a repercussion of their past low-paying jobs. Migrants face several challenges when deciding to leave the U.S. without acquiring citizenship. Those who choose to return to their home countries must visit the U.S. every six months to maintain their eligibility for benefits. This requirement can lead to significant costs, as they need to cover travel expenses and accommodations. As a result, a large portion of their benefits may be redirected to settle these conditions for their pension eligibility. This research contributes to the literature by highlighting how implementing CBPP could alleviate these burdens, enhance migrant well-being, and facilitate smoother transitions back to migrants’ home countries. Ultimately, we argue that CBPP is essential for addressing humanitarian concerns and the economic implications for migrants and the host country.

Background: Refugees often face major health challenges owing to displacement, poor living conditions, limited access to healthcare, and the psychological toll of forced migration. Access to healthcare has been a major concern because of disrupted medical services, pre-existing health conditions, and integration challenges in host countries. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of infectious diseases on refugees in the context of the war in Ukraine by analyzing data from patients who accessed health services from a county hospital. Methods: We analyzed the data of Ukrainian refugees who presented for an infectious disease between February 2022 and March 2025 in the largest hospital unit in Romania located immediately near the border with Ukraine. Results: A total of 2052 refugee patients of Ukrainian nationality presented to the Emergency Reception Unit of “St. Ioan cel Nou Suceava” for consultations; 672 patients required an evaluation by an infectious disease specialist and 48 were hospitalized in the Department of Infectious Diseases. The most common disease encountered in children was influenza, whereas the most common disease in adults was SARS-CoV-2 infection. The most frequently encountered comorbidities in pediatric patients were anemia (26.9%) and dehydration syndrome (46.2%). In adults, comorbidities included chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (18.2%), hypertension (13.6%), chronic coronary disease (4.5%), diabetes (9.1%), and chronic hepatitis (4.5%). Patients were treated with antivirals, rehydration solutions or only symptomatic treatment. Conclusions: Romania is implementing public health measures to address these challenges, focusing on vaccination and disease screening, and ensuring access to essential healthcare services. These services include access to primary care physicians, specialist consultations, hospitalization, and essential medications.

ABSTRACT Population ageing and global migration are two formidable trends significantly transforming many countries' demographic profiles. This paper adopts transnationalism to investigate late‐life Chinese immigrants' (65 years and over) everyday challenges and information practices in New Zealand. The findings result from a reflexive thematic analysis of in‐depth interviews of 47 older Chinese immigrants. We found that interviewees' challenges and information needs involved New Zealand‐ and China‐oriented issues, reflecting their transnational characteristics. Their information needs primarily targeted their daily challenges. Meanwhile, interviewees' challenges and information needs varied according to their settlement stages (newcomers vs. long‐established immigrants). In contrast, the settlement stage‐based divergencies of their information sources were not obvious. Interviewees' information‐seeking behaviours were both random and purposeful. The findings offer helpful suggestions for policymakers to improve social service and information delivery systems. They also expand our understanding of late‐life immigrants' local integration into host countries.

Background: Displaced individuals endure challenges, including conflict, forced migration, family separation, human rights violations, limited access to essential services, and increased exposure to violence and abuse. These hardships significantly impact their mental health, often leading to heightened trauma-related symptoms. Methods: We used a cross-sectional correlational design in refugee camps, homes, and centers across Jordan and Spain. 200 refugees with confirmed status in the past ten years were recruited. Demographic data were collected via a demographic form, the PTSD-8 Inventory assessed traumatic symptoms, and data analysis included descriptive statistics, independent t-tests, one-way ANOVA, and Chi-square tests. Results: Most participants had a secondary education, were unemployed, and had low incomes. PTSD symptoms were prevalent, with rates of recurrent thoughts (63.5%), re-experiencing events (57.5%), nightmares (50.5%), sudden reactions (56.5%), activity avoidance (53.5%), avoidance of specific thoughts or feelings (56.5%), jumpiness (53.5%), hypervigilance (53.5%), feeling on guard (41.5%), and general avoidance (43.5%) rated from rarely to most of the time. All symptoms were significantly more frequent among refugees in Jordan than in Spain. Conclusions and Recommendations: Intrusive thoughts were more frequent among females, urban residents, and unemployed individuals. Avoidance behaviors were higher in married and unemployed individuals. Hypervigilance was more prevalent among females, married individuals, and those with lower incomes. Regionally, females and married individuals in Jordan exhibited more intrusive thoughts and avoidance. In Spain, intrusive thoughts and hypervigilance were more common among females and the unemployed. The findings highlight the urgent need for targeted mental health interventions, particularly in refugee camps like those in Jordan, where PTSD symptom rates were significantly higher. Programs should prioritize trauma-focused therapies, such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, while adopting gender-sensitive approaches to address the heightened vulnerability of women and unemployed individuals. Given the strong link between unemployment and symptom severity, livelihood support and vocational training should be integrated into psychosocial care. Policymakers in host countries like Jordan could benefit from adopting integration strategies similar to Spain’s, which may contribute to lower PTSD prevalence. Additionally, community-based awareness initiatives could improve early symptom recognition and access to care. Future research should explore longitudinal outcomes to assess the long-term impact of displacement and resettlement conditions on mental health.

The article explores the civic engagement of forced migrants from Ukraine as an important factor in their integration into host societies and after potential return to their homeland. The relevance of the study is driven by the scale of current forced migration from Ukraine caused by the full-scale invasion, which has introduced new challenges for migrants, governmental bodies, and civil society. The purpose of the article is to investigate the involvement of Ukrainian forced migrants in civic activities abroad, to identify their sociodemographic characteristics and return intentions, and to outline the prospects for civil society organizations in the reintegration of returnees. The study is based on the analysis of empirical data collected through a sample survey of Ukrainian forced migrants. The survey was conducted online and covered 429 respondents residing in 31 countries. Methods of grouping, comparison, and statistical analysis were used to structure the data. The research findings show that over 60 % of respondents are engaged in some form of civic activity abroad, confirming the significant role of civic initiatives in the adaptation of displaced persons. It was found that factors such as age, presence of children, financial well-being, language proficiency in the host country, and likelihood of return to Ukraine do not significantly influence the level of civic engagement, indicating a high degree of internal motivation among participants. At the same time, differences in levels of civic engagement between Germany and Poland were observed, which may be attributed to the historical presence of the Ukrainian diaspora and local integration conditions. The article examines the role of civil society organizations in the reintegration of return migrants to Ukraine. In particular, it is shown that the experience of civic engagement abroad can serve as an important resource for the post-war recovery of the country. Civil society organizations have the potential to become key support institutions and mediators between migrants, governmental bodies, and society in both host countries and Ukraine. Future research may focus on developing strategies for the effective use of civic experience acquired abroad in the processes of Ukraine’s post-war reconstruction.