A central topic in spatial ecology is identifying what determines animal movement patterns, including both exogenous and endogenous factors. Given that there are different sex-based selection pressures in mating and reproduction, movement patterns often vary between males and females in predictable manners; males of polygynous species typically move more than females to maximize mating opportunities. In female polygynous animals, selection is generally thought to favor movement patterns with smaller home ranges and high spatial site fidelity. Physiology may also constrain movement patterns in a way that can obscure sex-specific selection. We used GPS loggers and physiological assays to study Gopher Tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) movement patterns to determine how movement patterns depend on physiology (as measured by the baseline and the change in plasma lactate concentration in response to standardized exercise challenge and body condition) and movement strategy (total distance traveled over the course of the study, daily distance traveled, maximum daily displacement, home range area, burrow use) by sex. Total distance traveled was positively related to body condition and negatively related to baseline lactate concentration (which is an inverse metric of aerobic fitness). Thus, total distance traveled was physiologically constrained. Change in plasma lactate concentration, however, was not related to any of the space usage parameters. Home range area and burrow use were not related to any physiological metrics. There was not a significant difference in total distance traveled nor daily distance traveled between male and female Gopher Tortoises, but males had larger maximum daily displacements than females. Males also had larger home range areas. Male and female Gopher Tortoises thus used different movement strategies that may have maximized fitness consistent with different selection pressures by sex in a scramble competition mating system.

Moderate growth and limited movement of the prized golden sandfish sea cucumber, Holothuria lessoni

Droughts are globally increasing in duration, frequency and intensity, thereby endangering the survival of wildlife species. Understanding how animals behave during drought is essential to develop conservation measures that aid wildlife survival and prevent human-wildlife conflict in a changing climate. Yet, little is known about animal behaviour during drought. Specifically, existing work on animal behaviour and drought typically does not account for the timescale and the intensity of the drought. We use 19 years of GPS data from the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), a species at risk from drought, collected in Southern Africa, where droughts are increasingly common. We study if there is a connection (i) between drought and the amount of space elephants use and (ii) between drought and elephant habitat selection. We examine drought conditions using the Standardized Precipitation-Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) at a 1-month, a 3-month, and a 12-month timescale. We found that elephants had smaller home ranges and movement distances when their environment became drier at a 1-month timescale. Importantly, SPEI at a 1-month timescale was a better predictor of elephant home range size than precipitation and NDVI, suggesting that drought conditions may affect elephant movement through more ways than a lack of precipitation or vegetation greenness. In addition, we found that elephant habitat selection changed as a function of drought conditions at all three timescales, but the direction of the change often depended on the timescale of the drought. We found that elephants were closer to inland water and in areas with lower human population density during drought at a 1-month timescale, but farther from inland water and in areas with higher human population density when drought lasted longer. Overall, our results show that drought conditions, as measured by SPEI, predict elephant movement behaviour. We stress the importance of (i) using a drought index rather than only precipitation levels to examine drought conditions and (ii) considering the timescale at which drought occurs. These insights could help to better understand how animals behave during drought and to assess the risk of human-wildlife conflict across species, regions and drought timescales.

ABSTRACT Understanding sex-related differences in ecology is essential for effective conservation strategies, especially in species that exhibit subtle to no sexual dimorphism. This study examines the Desert Uplands population of the Southern Black-throated Finch (Poephila cincta cincta); an endangered species endemic to north-eastern Australia, focusing on key ecological aspects, including sex ratio, movement ecology, and diet. Although previously considered sexually monomorphic, we found subtle sexual dimorphism in throat patch size (17.1% larger in males) and wing length (7.48% larger in males), with no significant differences in other morphological traits. We found a balanced adult sex ratio (52.3% females, 47.7% males), indicating no significant sex bias; a key indicator for ensuring mating opportunities and breeding success. Despite these differences, only 67.6% of individuals could be sexed accurately based on these traits. We also examined the movement ecology of the species and found no significant sex-based differences in home range size or movement distance, consistent with the subspecies’ tendency to live in mixed-sex flocks. Diet analysis, based on DNA metabarcoding of crop and faecal samples, indicated no significant sex-based dietary divergence, with both sexes consuming a similar variety of grass seeds. These findings highlight the importance of understanding the ecological dynamics of the Southern Black-throated Finch for conservation efforts, suggesting that further studies on juvenile dispersal, and advanced morphometric techniques may improve understanding of this species.

Tracking small-bodied animals in estuarine environments entails significant technological and analytical challenges. Diamond-backed terrapins are small (max 1.4kg) turtles that inhabit salt marshes of the eastern U.S. and the Gulf of Mexico. Terrapin movements have been studied with VHF radio telemetry, acoustic telemetry, and mark and recapture methods, which have indicated maximum straight-line movement distances < 10km and mean home ranges < 1 km2. We deployed 21 Argos satellite tags on adult female terrapins at two sites on Long Island, New York to better understand the spatial ecology of this imperiled species, and to test newly available tracking technology. We processed the location data three ways: (1) we used a location data filter to remove unlikely terrestrial and oceanic locations and applied a state-space model to account for Argos location errors, (2) we applied the state-space model to unfiltered data to determine the effects of not removing unlikely locations, and (3) we used only the highest quality location class 3 (LC 3) locations. We used the data resulting from each of these approaches to calculate four different movement metrics: summer home range size (95% minimum convex polygons (MCPs) and kernel density estimates (50% and 95% KDE, with both reference [href] and least squares cross validation [LSCV] bandwidths)), the total distance traveled from June to August, maximum distance traveled in one day, and daily movement rates. Home ranges estimated from the three processing techniques were similar in size and covered the same spatial areas. Estimates for total distance traveled, daily movement rates, and maximum distance traveled were similar between the state-space modeling techniques, but LC 3 estimated distances were twice as long. Movement metrics and home ranges were similar between the two study sites, despite differences in urbanization and bay size. These results suggest that most movement metrics and home range estimates are fairly insensitive to these different analytical techniques, even at relatively smaller spatial scales. Additionally, our study indicates substantially larger home ranges and longer straight-line movements than VHF telemetry or sonic tag studies, highlighting the utility of satellite tags to improve our understanding of terrapin ecology and conservation.

Movement shapes biodiversity patterns and ecosystem functioning, and recent advances in animal tracking have improved our ability to quantify space use. Utilization distributions, site fidelity, and habitat use provide complementary perspectives on where animals concentrate their activity and how consistently they reuse key areas, informing conservation and habitat management. Black-tailed Gulls (Larus crassirostris) are abundant in the Yellow Sea, yet their fine-scale seasonal space use and fidelity patterns remain poorly quantified. From 2020 to 2024, we tracked 15 adult Black-tailed Gulls with GPS loggers on the west coast of the Korean Peninsula for 496-850 days per individual. Breeding, non-breeding, and wintering sites were delineated using hierarchical density-based spatial clustering of applications with noise (HDBSCAN). Seasonal utilization distributions were estimated using weighted autocorrelated kernel density estimation (wAKDE). Home range and core area sizes differed among annual stages, with wintering ranges larger than breeding ranges. Ten individuals tracked across consecutive breeding seasons all returned to the same breeding colonies, and inter-annual home-range overlap and habitat-use similarity remained high across stages. Together, strong fidelity and seasonal habitat switching indicate reliance on repeatedly used key areas, while also suggesting potential vulnerability to ecological traps under rapid environmental change in the Yellow Sea.

Empirical understanding of dispersal evolution is limited, due in large part to the complexity of the dispersal process and the difficulty of quantifying dispersal directly. To move ahead, it may help to focus on universal dispersal traits: propensity-the discrete emigration response distinguishing dispersers from non-dispersers-and distance. In particular, little is known about the evolution of dispersal distance, including whether it is an independent trait subject to selection. We used capture-recapture data and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotypes from 1906 salamanders sampled over 10 years to test for independent genetic associations with dispersal propensity and distance. Gyrinophilus porphyriticus is a headwater specialist, and our data are from three hydrologically independent streams in New Hampshire. We quantified dispersal propensities and distances directly with recapture histories and we used principal component analysis of SNP genotypes to derive three orthogonal axes of genetic variation. Of 173 recaptured individuals, 81 were non-dispersers and 92 were dispersers based on an empirically derived 3-m threshold distinguishing dispersal from movements within an individual's home range. Dispersal distances ranged from 4 to 1248 m. Dispersal propensity and distance were significantly associated with different axes of genetic variation, indicating that these are independent traits capable of responding to different selective forces. More broadly, these results show that quantifying dispersal propensities and dispersal distances-and explicitly assessing interactions and trade-offs between these traits-may help to advance understanding of dispersal evolution.

Infectious skin diseases in nonhuman primates are of importance due to their zoonotic transmission potential, especially in biodiversity rich areas where human-wildlife interactions are frequent. Here, we report the presence of a skin disease in unhabituated wild Guinea baboons (Papio papio) inhabiting an agroforest landscape in Cantanhez National Park, Guinea-Bissau, exclusively using non-invasive surveillance methods. We combined 107 georeferenced baboon presence points, camera trap footage obtained during 2224 camera trap days, with molecular analysis of 272 biological samples collected opportunistically. Given the presence of leprosy in western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in Cantanhez and yaws in nonhuman primates in Sub-Saharan Africa, we tested the samples using specific PCR protocols for Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum as possible causative agents. We estimated the minimum ranging area of the baboons, which overlapped with 27.25% of the home range of a chimpanzee community affected by leprosy. We identified at least seven baboons with lesions on the muzzle, eyebrow, ears, tail, hindquarters, joints, hands and/or feet. Clinical signs partially aligned with descriptions of nonhuman primates affected by leprosy and yaws. Molecular analysis failed at conclusively showing the presence of either suspected pathogen. Longitudinal monitoring and additional sampling are needed to identify the causative agent, which may be relevant to conservation and public health, as baboon meat is consumed by humans in Guinea-Bissau.

ABSTRACTSpecies occupying small habitat patches and exhibiting behavioral and ecological flexibility are more likely to persist in fragmented landscapes. However, when isolated populations are not self‐sustaining in the long term, translocation may be required, making an understanding of their behavior critical. Howler monkeys (Alouatta spp.) show high tolerance to habitat restriction, which has been linked to a highly folivorous diet and the exploitation of non‐tree plant and non‐native species as food sources. We assessed how the size of the habitat patch influences home range size, day range, time spent feeding, young leaf and fruit consumption, and diet richness, the relationships between these behaviors, and the effect of group size and study length on them using Generalized Linear Mixed Models and full model averaging based on a dataset of 97 studies conducted at 62 locations on the behavior of 124 groups representing nine species. Habitat patch size predicted home range size, which showed a positive effect on fruit consumption. Diet richness increased with increasing mean day range. No variable predicted day range, feeding time, and young leaf consumption. The limited and uncertain predictive power of habitat patch size for most variables reflect the unpredictability of the behavioral and ecological responses of howler monkeys to varying conditions of habitat quality. Our findings are consistent with the possibility that the behavioral flexibility enabling howler groups to survive in small, isolated, low quality habitat patches could enhance their value in metapopulation management strategies aimed at promoting long‐term persistence of the species in human‐modified landscapes.

ABSTRACTSuccessful animal tracking projects depend on well‐informed sampling strategies and robust methods to yield biologically meaningful inferences. Considering financial and logistical constraints, the reliability of research outputs is shaped by key decisions regarding study duration (how long should each individual be tracked?), sampling frequency (how often should new locations be collected?), and how many individuals should be tracked. To maximize their conservation value, studies must consider estimator precision and avoid biased inferences of key parameters related to movement behavior and space use, as this can lead to wasted resources and misguide management actions. To address these challenges, we propose a workflow for determining the optimal sample sizes for population‐level home range area and speed estimates, explicitly addressing the trade‐offs between sampling duration (T), sampling interval (∆t), and population sample size (m). While a priori study design is considered best practice, this workflow can be applied at multiple stages, including concurrent with data collection, or as a post hoc evaluation. By selecting robust methods that are sampling‐insensitive, and by quantifying and propagating uncertainty through downstream analyses, we can determine whether our sample sizes (both at the individual‐ and population‐level) are sufficient to yield robust population‐level inferences. Furthermore, researchers can integrate additional logistical constraints such as fix success rate, location error, and potential device malfunctions, while also accounting for individual variation. We illustrate potential applications of this workflow through empirically‐guided simulations. To facilitate its use and implementation, we incorporated this workflow into the user‐friendly ‘movedesign’ R Shiny application. This application enables researchers to easily test different sampling strategies, and as of version 0.3.3, integrates population‐level analytical targets. This workflow has the potential to improve the rigor and reliability of animal tracking projects conducted under logistical and financial constraints, and thereby support more effective scientific research, wildlife management, and conservation efforts.

The reef manta ray (Mobula alfredi) is a highly mobile pelagic marine ray found throughout the tropical and subtropical waters of the Indo-Pacific, but investigation into their behavior and ecology within Papua New Guinea has not been previously undertaken. Furthermore, the home range, dispersal characteristics, and inter-seasonal fine-scale habitat use of this species is limited. To address these data gaps and investigate the vertical and horizontal habitat use of a previously unstudied population, SPLASH10-F-321A pop-off archival satellite tags were used to track ten adult individuals from 4–181 days between 2016–2018 across two distinct monsoonal periods in the Samarai Islands of Milne Bay, southeastern Papua New Guinea. Our findings indicate strong site-attached movement patterns for reef manta rays in this region, with 75% of relocations occurring within ten kilometers of the tagging site. While occasional movements beyond this range were observed, the maximum displacement distance was 86.9 km, and no consistent seasonal differences in horizontal displacement distance were detected. Tagged rays displayed a clear preference for the Samarai Islands and the Papuan Plateau across both monsoons, with shallow bathymetry and elevated chlorophyll-a values driving observed habitat preferences. We found evidence for shifts in vertical occupancy of the water column that corresponded with the mixed layer depth; dives were deeper when the mixed layer depth was shallow, suggesting that reef manta rays can exhibit behaviorally plastic responses to seasonal variations in oceanographic conditions. These findings provide the first insight into the movement ecology of this reef manta ray population that can be used to inform the development of economically valuable manta ray tourism practices and a sustainable management plan in the region.

BackgroundUnderstanding movement ecology across life-history stages is critical for conserving declining migratory species. The Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), a grassland songbird, exhibits complex spatial behaviors shaped by annual cycle stage, landscape context, and environmental conditions. We investigated the movement ecology of adult male Bobolinks across three stages of the annual cycle using satellite tracking.MethodsWe deployed Sunbird Argos satellite tags on 26 adult male Bobolinks from two breeding sites in the northeastern United States: one large, continuous grassland and one small, isolated site. Using continuous-time movement models, we estimated home range size and composition, analyzed movement patterns during nesting, post-fledging, and fall migration periods, and compared these parameters between sites. We documented nocturnal pre-migratory flights and used multiple linear regression to assess environmental and geographic factors associated with stopover movement.ResultsDuring nesting, males at the large site maintained larger home ranges with greater grassland cover than males at the isolated small site. By the post-fledging period, home range sizes no longer differed between sites, although home ranges at the large site still contained a higher proportion of grassland. We recorded temporary movements outside of established home ranges (forays) of up to 17 km during the nesting period, potentially linked to extra-pair mating, and provided evidence of nocturnal pre-migratory flights in most individuals. During migration, stopover home-range size was only moderately associated with temporal and environmental variables and was not influenced by landscape context.ConclusionsThis study represents one of the first applications of fine-scale satellite tags on small migratory passerines across multiple annual cycle stages. It extends evidence of breeding-season forays and nocturnal pre-migratory flights to a grassland specialist, highlighting the behavioral flexibility of Bobolinks across seasons. Bobolinks adapted their space use and movement strategies to meet varying ecological demands. Our study emphasized the need to maintain connected grassland networks to support breeding populations and protect key Caribbean stopover sites to sustain Bobolinks along their long-distance migration route.

Sexual selection acting on males through intrasexual competition for mates is a well-established driver of sexual size dimorphism (SSD) in primates. However, studies typically focus on within-group competition, overlooking the potential significance of competition arising from interactions between neighbouring social groups, particularly when home ranges overlap. Here, we analysed the relationships between SSD, mating system and different proxies of range use across up to 143 species of anthropoid and strepsirrhine primates. Contrary to expectations, mating system-a commonly used proxy for male competition-did not significantly predict SSD. Instead, male-biased SSD increased with home range overlap and encounter rate between social groups, even after accounting for mating system and body size allometry. This suggests that spatial pressures, such as the latent threat of competition from rival groups, impose stronger selection on male compared with female size. Home range overlap may select for larger males to deter rivals, defend resources or monopolize females across shared territories, potentially without frequent physical contests. Our work calls for renewed attention to how spatial competition, including resource defence and mate guarding across overlapping territories, influences trait evolution in primates and other social vertebrates and to re-evaluate proxies of sexual selection.

In captivity, ursids are more susceptible to displaying abnormal behaviors due to the seasonal variation in their particular biology concerning food resources, home range size, denning, or reproduction. We studied five brown bear females housed in two centers: Barcelona Zoo and Vallcalent Wildlife Recovery Centre. The data sampling involved a multi-focal and continuous recording of the duration, interval, rate, and location of abnormal behaviors. This study investigated the relationships among display and location of abnormal behaviors and multiple environmental factors: the season, time of day, temperature, humidity, wind speed and number of visitors through the analysis of generalized linear models. The observations showed a high individual variability of the abnormal behaviors displayed: one female displayed bar licking and swaying simultaneously, three other females displayed only one type -log biting, head-tossing and pacing-, while another female did not display any type. The duration of log biting was associated with season and temperature. The rate of head-tossing was associated with time of day, its interval was associated with season, time of day, temperature, humidity, and number of visitors; meanwhile, its location was associated with all environmental factors. The bar licking location was associated with temperature. The swaying duration was associated with time of day, humidity, and wind speed; meanwhile, its location was associated with temperature. These females tended to display abnormal behaviors in specific places of the enclosure. For the welfare of bears in captivity, it is crucial to disentangle the relationship between current and past single or multiple environmental and individual factors and the individuality of abnormal behaviors.

Understanding the movement patterns of free-foraging livestock is essential for the sustainable management of arid and semi-arid ecosystems. Therefore, this study employed a goat and a cow fitted with GPS collars, satellite images, and climatic variables to explore the daily walk distance and home range of livestock, as well as their relationships with environmental variables in a traditional production system during 2023 in sarcocaulescent scrubland with very dry and semi-warm weather, located on the Baja California Peninsula, Mexico. The results revealed that a goat walked longer daily distances per month (7.7 ± 2.6 vs. 3.4 ± 2.0km) and had larger monthly home ranges than a cow (562 ± 153.5 vs. 332 ± 96 hectares). Specifically, a goat walked the longest distances in December (9.5km; summer wet season) and the shortest in October (6.6km; autumn dry season), while a cow traveled the longest in July (4.6km; dry season) and the shortest in April (2.5km; dry season). The total area utilized annually by a goat was 1,682 hectares, and 1,180 hectares for a cow. Seasonality (measured in Julian days), plant vigor (normalized difference vegetation index), vegetation cover, and temperature non-linearly affected the walking distance of the goat and cow. Additionally, wind speed had a non-linear effect on the goat's walking distance. Finally, vegetation cover, temperature, precipitation, and relative humidity significantly influenced the goat's home range size linearly but did not have a similar effect on the cow's. These findings underscore the importance of considering species-specific behaviors and climatic influences in developing effective and sustainable livestock management practices in traditional production systems.

The increasing volume and sampling frequency of telemetry data require a critical evaluation of algorithms for estimating animal home range (HR), especially for highly mobile species with complex territorial behavior. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive comparative analysis of the performance of 6 HR estimation algorithms using tracking data from Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos). Model evaluation was performed using aggregated multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA), spatial indices (SQI, M1/M2), predictive power metrics (AUC, LL), and the two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test to assess behavioral realism. The analysis was conducted on both original high-frequency data and artificially rarefied (downsampled) tracks (up to 1 location per 6 hours). The results revealed fundamental differences in the spatial topology of the models. Classical approaches (KDE h ref, BBMM) demonstrated excessive oversmoothing of the HR core area (50%). In contrast, dynamic Brownian Bridge Movement Models (dBBMM) were highly sensitive to sampling density. On high-frequency data, the algorithm falls into spatial overfitting, classifying over 90% of actual transit locations as statistical noise. Extreme downsampling of tracks revealed a paradox of algorithm convergence and an inversion of their scale nesting. Also, it led to a critical loss of behavioral microstructure across all interpolative models. Based on the aggregation of all metrics, the AKDE method was recognized as the absolute leader. By integrating the temporal autocorrelation structure (OU/OUF models), AKDE proved to be the only algorithm that preserved the reliable spatial extent of the HR and predictive accuracy under sparse data conditions. This study demonstrates that for highly mobile avian predators, route interpolation becomes ecologically inadequate, and it is precisely AKDE that allows the transformation of discrete transit locations into a biologically robust HR model.

This article presents the first published results on the spatial ecology of Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) in Central Asia, using GPS/GSM telemetry. Movements of three juvenile Golden Eagles were followed. The eaglets were tagged in the nest, two in Russia (2018, 2023), and one in Kazakhstan (2024). The duration of the post-fledging dependence period (PFDP) varies from 89 to 124 days, averaging 109±18 days. The home range sizes of eagles during the PFDP, calculated as 100% MCP, varied from 2.67 to 1177.56 km² (averaging 642.16±594.32 km²). Daily flight activity averaged 1.64±1.17 h (based on the most detailed track), corresponding to 13.4±10.34% of the total daylight hours. The average flight altitude of the birds varied from 79.19±44.33 m to 217.41±102.55 m, depending on the season and landscape, and was highest during migration. The natal dispersal process and transition to a territorial lifestyle in the tracked female culminated in a nesting attempt at age three. The data obtained are important for understanding the ontogenesis of eagle behavior and developing scientifically based conservation measures for the species, particularly in the context of wind energy development and other anthropogenic threats.

Understanding spatial patterns in small, elusive species is critical for behavioral ecology and conservation, yet traditional tracking methods often face logistical constraints. We evaluated the utility of an Internet of Things (IoT)-based proximity biologging system as an automated tool for determining the activity patterns and utilization distributions (UDs) of small, free-ranging animals. We monitored female Bechstein's bats (Myotis bechsteinii) using a grid of 65 logging stations over two breeding seasons. Individual UDs were estimated using proximity data via autocorrelated kernel density estimation. We analyzed kinship-driven space-sharing and site fidelity through spatial overlap metrics. To validate system accuracy, we conducted a human-mediated field simulation for comparing proximity against GPS-derived UDs. Female bats exhibited individualized home ranges; however, mother-daughter pairs showed significantly higher overlap than non-related pairs. Repeatedly tagged individuals showed site fidelity. These results converge with previous patterns reported using VHF data. Field simulations demonstrated 88% (95% AKDE-home range) and 78% (50% AKDE-core area) of spatial congruence between proximity-based and GPS-derived UDs, confirming high locational accuracy within the detection grid. While the grid-based approach limits UD estimations to the monitored area, the IoT proximity system provides a reliable and automated alternative for studying fine-scale activity patterns. Our findings highlight the potential for this technology to identify activity hotspots and spatial dynamics in conservation-priority habitats of species with relatively small home ranges and high site fidelity, such as the Bechstein's bat.

Increasingly, the conservation of large and wide-ranging animals is challenged by environmental variability, static boundaries of protected areas, and the expansion of human activities. The Critically Endangered Onager (Equus hemionus onager) exemplifies these issues in Qatrouiyeh National Park (QNP) and the surrounding Bahram-e-Goor Protected Area (BPA) in Iran. Using GPS telemetry data from 9 adult females tracked over 2 years, we examined seasonal patterns in movement and incursions into cultivated lands in 2017 and 2018. Net squared displacement analyses indicated that most individuals exhibited range-resident behavior with occasional nomadic movements, with no evidence for migration (i.e., predictable movements to and from distinct seasonal ranges). Both monthly home range size and monthly movement rate varied seasonally, peaking in late spring and early summer (May–July). Individual home ranges were between 257 and 1,928 km2, while the extrapolated population-level home range (718 km2; 95% confidence interval = 276–1368) extended well outside QNP, covering large portions of the BPA. Occurrence distributions also expanded beyond the protected area into adjacent cultivated lands, highlighting the use of human-occupied areas by onagers. We recorded 2,285 (out of 72,168) GPS locations within cultivated lands and their surrounding 50 m buffer, with 60% of these incursions occurring immediately adjacent to QNP. Most incursions occurred at night and were strongly associated with both season and cumulative rainfall over the preceding 9 months. These findings emphasize how rainfall-driven variability in resource dynamics shapes the spatial distribution and behavior of onagers, thus elevating the risk of conflict with humans. The scale and seasonality of Onager movements highlight the need for flexible, landscape-level conservation strategies that extend beyond fixed park boundaries to encompass critical habitats and to mitigate conflict across the broader region.

Home range and habitat selection of resident and translocated Sumatran Elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus) in Harapan Rainforest PT. REKI