Physics-based charge transport modelling is widely used to analyse multilayer optoelectronic devices. However, conventional drift-diffusion discretisation schemes can exhibit numerical instability at heterojunction interfaces with abrupt discontinuities in energy levels and doping density. In quantum-dot light-emitting diodes (QD-LEDs), the heterojunction between the hole injection layer (HIL) and the hole transport layer (HTL) represents such a critical interface. In this study, a field-dependent current density scheme is proposed to stabilise the discretisation of drift-diffusion currents across heterojunction interfaces. By incorporating the local electric-field direction when evaluating carrier densities at discretised boundaries, the scheme suppresses numerical artefacts associated with mean-value interpolation of the carrier density. The stability and convergence of our model are examined using a one-dimensional finite-difference framework and subsequently implemented in a charge transport model for QD-LEDs. Using this model, the effects of energy-level alignment and acceptor doping density at the HIL/HTL interface on charge transport and electro-optical characteristics are analysed. The simulations reproduce typical voltage-dependent experimental trends in current density, luminance, and external quantum efficiency, providing insight into the role of the HIL/HTL heterojunction in carrier injection. Owing to its numerical formulation, the proposed approach is applicable to a broad range of multilayer semiconductor devices involving heterojunction interfaces.

With the rapid development of the next-generation of flexible display technology, high-performance flexible transparent electrodes are urgently required to substitute conventional indium tin oxide (ITO). Herein, we report the fabrication of highly conductive and transparent flexible OLED anodes by embedding Ag NWs into an n-type poly(benzodifurandione):poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) (PBFDO:PEOx) conductive polymer. The optimized Ag NWs/PBFDO:PEOx composite electrode exhibits a low sheet resistance of 15 Ω sq-1 and a high optical transmittance of 90% at 550 nm. Crucially, the n-type PBFDO:PEOx in the composite electrode anchors the silver nanowire network to ensure high conductivity and mechanical stability. Meanwhile, it forms an n-p heterojunction with the p-type hole injection layer (HIL) to enhance carrier injection via tunnelling effects. This structure effectively overcomes the substantial injection barrier caused by work function mismatch. Consequently, the OLED device adopting the Ag NWs/PBFDO:PEOx composite anode delivers a maximum current efficiency of 61.5 cd A-1, which is comparable to that of ITO-based counterparts. Moreover, the composite electrode has significantly better mechanical properties than ITO electrodes, maintaining its electrical conductivity even after 10 000 bending cycles. Therefore, this composite electrode offers an effective alternative to conventional ITO and paves the way for the future development of flexible display technologies.

Perovskite quantum dot light-emitting diodes (Pe QLEDs) hold significant application potential in next-generation displays, but the device performance remains compromised by the acidity and hygroscopicity of the widely adopted hole injection layer (HIL), poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS). Molybdenum oxide (MoOx) has garnered significant attention due to its excellent environmental stability; however, there is still a lack of research on the influence of different molybdenum ion contents on the physicochemical properties of molybdenum oxide itself and its application as a hole injection layer (HIL) in red Pe QLEDs. In this work, three MoOx solutions with the conduction band level from -4.70 to -5.15 eV were prepared by modulating the H2O2 ratio to regulate the Mo5+ and Mo6+ content, and different MoOx were adopted as HIL to systematically investigate the influence of energy landscapes on device performance. A gradient conduction band energy was realized, and optimal hole injection was obtained when the ratio of Mo5+ is 48.1%, with an external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 28.6% realized. This efficiency is comparable to that of PEDOT:PSS-based devices and represents the highest value reported for MoOx-based red Pe QLEDs. Besides, the operational stability was enhanced from 3.0 to 10.6 h, and after being stored for 48 h in a high-humidity environment, the half-life (T50) remained above 3.0 h, far exceeding that of PEDOT:PSS-based devices, which nearly lost their operational stability. The proposed MoOx-based Pe QLEDs exhibited significantly improved operational and storage stabilities.

NiOx offers tunable energy-level via interfacial molecular modification, making it a promising hole injection layer for perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs). However, conventional modifiers often detach during perovskite deposition, reverting energy-level to the intrinsic state. While simply enhancing electron-withdrawing strength can improve anchoring, it causes excessive energy-level shifts. Here, we employ a multidentate anchoring strategy to enhance modifier adsorption stability on NiOx, preventing the regulated energy-level from shifting back. These interactions correspondingly provide multiple charge-transfer pathways, which effectively disperse the charge density and thereby mitigate the localized strong electron transfer that causes excessive energy-level modulation. Specifically, tridentate anchor 4-bromophenylphosphonic acid (BPA) engages in multiple Ni-O coordination bonds, achieving a high adsorption strength of -6.47eV and retaining over 95% surface-coverage after polar solvent rinsing. Concurrently, multiple charge-transfer pathways effectively distribute the electron-withdrawing effect of ─PO3H2 group, yielding favorable energy-level alignment with a small barrier of less than 0.69eV. We integrate this strengthened NiOx with pure-halide quasi-2D perovskites to fabricate deep-blue PeLEDs. The obtained PeLEDs exhibit a champion external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 15.8% at 463nm and a record-low turn-on voltage of 2.4V. This approach also enables large-area (3 × 3 cm2) PeLEDs fabrication, with an EQE of 11.2%.

Molecular doping is an effective strategy for optimizing electroluminescent device performance. Herein, we developed a solution-processable triarylamine-fluorene copolymer (YM3) as a high-efficiency p-dopable host for inverted organic light-emitting diodes (i-OLEDs). Blending YM3 with 5-10 wt.% F4TCNQ induces quantitative integer charge transfer, evidenced by complete bleaching of neutral F4TCNQ absorption, emergence of F4TCNQ- and polymer polaron bands in ultraviolet-visible-near infrared spectroscopy, CN-stretch downshift ‌from Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, strong polymer radical electron paramagnetic resonance signal, and results from UV photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and liquid and solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance characterizations. The doped YM3:F4TCNQ composite forms ultra-smooth, homogeneous hole-injection layers, elevating the electrode's effective work function to 4.83eV and ensuring excellent solvent orthogonality with the underlying emissive layer. Fully solution-processed blue i-OLEDs with 20-nm YM3:F4TCNQ hole-injection layer exhibit low turn-on voltage (∼3.00V), deep-blue emission (CIE: 0.14, 0.12), maximum external quantum efficiency of 5.72%, current efficiency of 6.30cd A- 1, reduced roll-off, and improved operational stability. These results demonstrate that the YM3:F4TCNQ system, with superior solubility, suppressed dopant aggregation, and efficient work-function tuning, provides an acid-free, neutral, and industrially feasible hole-injection solution for high-performance fully solution-processed printable i-OLEDs.

Integrating circularly polarized electroluminescence (CPEL) into light-emitting diodes (LEDs) is crucial for advanced optical applications. However, its application is impeded by a longstanding trilemma involving a sufficient electroluminescence asymmetry factor (gEL), high external quantum efficiency (EQE), and narrow emission bandwidth. Here, a new strategy is proposed for generating CPEL in both circularly polarized organic light-emitting diodes (CP-OLEDs) and circularly polarized LEDs (CP-LEDs) by incorporating a chiral additive into the PEDOT:PSS ((3, 4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate)) hole-injection layer (HIL) to induce a spin-flipping. Consequently, solution-processable CP-OLEDs based on common achiral emitters achieve advantages of high gEL, high EQE, and excellent color purity. Comparing the original PEDOT:PSS based devices, improved maximum external quantum efficiency (EQEmax) of 17.2%, 20.3%, 12.0%, and 23.0% were obtained, with |gEL| of 2×10-2, 6×10-3, 1×10-2, and 1×10-3, for blue multi-resonance emitter, green phosphorescent emitter, and green multi-resonance emitters, respectively. This strategy enables deep-red perovskite-based CP-LEDs to deliver not only pronounced CPEL but also several-fold enhancements in performance. Angle-dependent CPEL measurements confirm the observed CPEL originating from spin-flip induction rather than polarization effects. This chiral additive HIL strategy establishes a universal platform for efficient CPEL across a wide range of achiral emitters and is applicable to both OLED and LED technologies.

Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) have been developed to enhance device lifetime, efficiency, and operational stability. However, the widely used hole injection layer (HIL) material poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) exhibits limitations such as high work function and acidity, which degrade device performance. This study introduces a [2-(9H-carbazol-9-yl)ethyl]phosphonic acid (2PACz) self-assembled monolayer (SAM) as an alternative to PEDOT:PSS. 2PACz-based OLEDs achieved lower turn-on voltages and higher external quantum efficiencies (EQEs) compared with PEDOT:PSS-based devices. The maximum EQE of green and red fiber organic light emitting diodes (FOLEDs) were 10.71% and 8.97%, respectively, representing 16.9% and 12.9% improvements compared with those of reference devices using PEDOT:PSS as the HIL. Furthermore, compared with TiO2 fiber-shaped dye-sensitized solar cells (FS-DSSCs), the incorporation of TiO2/2PACz increased the power conversion efficiency (PCE) from 5.67% to 6.53%, corresponding to an improvement of approximately 17%. Notably, the TiO2/2PACz-based fiber-shaped gas sensors (FS-GSs) also exhibited enhanced gas sensing characteristics, including increased response and sensitivity, highlighting the multifunctionality and broad applicability of this interfacial engineering strategy across diverse optoelectronic platforms.

The hole injection layer (HIL) plays a critical role in achieving high efficiency and operational stability in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). As a commonly used HIL, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) is limited by its intrinsically low electrical conductivity and mismatched work function alignment with the hole transport layer (HTL), leading to inefficient hole injection and carrier imbalance. In this work, a mild citric acid (CA) treatment is used to simultaneously enhance the conductivity of PEDOT:PSS through the partial removal of insulating PSS and tune its work function for improved energy level alignment at the anode interface. This simultaneous optimization effectively enhances the hole transport capability, successfully matching the electron transport capability to realize highly improved charge carrier balance within the device. Consequently, Ir(ppy)3-based phosphorescent OLEDs featuring the optimally treated PEDOT:PSS HIL deliver a maximum external quantum efficiency of 20.37%, representing a 21% improvement over devices using pristine PEDOT:PSS, along with a twofold extension in operational lifetime. This strategy demonstrates a simple and controllable approach to interfacial engineering, providing practical guidance for the development of high-performance and stable OLEDs.

Achieving efficient and color-pure-blue emission in solution-processed organic light-emitting diodes (SOLEDs) remains a challenge due to poor triplet utilization and interfacial energy loss. We report high-efficiency blue hyperfluorescent (HF) SOLEDs that use a polymer/small-molecule hybrid emitting layer composed of a polymeric thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) sensitizer, poly(10-(3-(4-(8-phenyloctyl)phenyl)-5,9-dioxa-13b-boranaphtho[3,2,1-de]anthracen-7-yl)-10H-spiro[acridine-9,9'-fluorene]), and a narrowband multiresonance TADF emitter. The polymer sensitizer enables efficient triplet harvesting and rapid reverse intersystem crossing, suppresses aggregation, and ensures effective energy transfer to the terminal emitter. In addition, self-organized polymeric hole injection layers are introduced to increase hole injection and suppress exciton loss at the interface. As a result, blue SOLEDs achieved a high external quantum efficiency of 32.7%, which is the highest reported to date for polymer-based TADF or HF OLEDs. This study demonstrates a polymer-sensitized blue HF OLED and offers a generalizable strategy for production of high-efficiency SOLED platforms.

Quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QLEDs) are strong contenders in display technology due to their excellent color purity and wide color gamut. Nevertheless, the strong acidity and hygroscopicity of the conventional hole injection layer (HIL) PEDOT:PSS lead to ITO anode corrosion and unbalanced carrier injection, severely limiting device efficiency and stability. In this work, MoO₃ prepared by sol–gel method was employed as an interfacial interlayer between ITO and PEDOT:PSS to construct a hybrid dual-hole injection system, and the effects of annealing temperature (100–170°C) on film morphology and device performance were systematically studied. Results reveal that the MoO3interlayer effectively blocks ITO corrosion by PEDOT:PSS and optimizes hole injection via energy level matching. The optimized red QLED with MoO3annealed at 130°C exhibits outstanding performance: the maximum current efficiency (CEmax) reaches 121.21 cd/A, the maximum external quantum efficiency (EQEmax) is 17.06%, and the maximum brightness climbs up to 97340 cd/m². More importantly, the T50 lifetime at 100 cd/m² is extended to 8511 h, which is nearly 7 times that of the standard PEDOT:PSS–based device. This study offers a reliable interface engineering strategy for fabricating high–efficiency, long–lifetime all–solution–processed QLEDs, laying a foundation for their industrial applications in advanced displays and lighting.

Myconanotechnology is an emerging interdisciplinary research field that integrates fungal biology and nanotechnology to advance sustainability. Fungi exert profound effects on global health, biodiversity, and agriculture, thereby presenting both significant challenges and promising opportunities. While some fungal species are major causal agents of plant and animal diseases, others have been widely exploited for beneficial applications in diverse sectors, including medicine and agriculture (Corbu et al. 2023). Beyond conventional approaches, recent research has underscored the potential of nanotechnology to revolutionize fungal diagnostics and pathogen management (Ray et al. 2023), as well as to harness fungi and their biomolecules for nanoparticle synthesis and functionalization (Xu et al. 2024). In developing this research topic, we identified a need to highlight recent advances in the application of nanotechnology to fungal biology, particularly those with commercial potential for sustainable agriculture and health.Recently, there has been increasing interest in environmentally friendly, sustainable synthesis using fungal bioreactors. In this context, Sidhu et al. have reviewed the fungus-mediated synthesis of multimetallic nanoparticles (MMNPs). In this review, the authors highlight the importance of MMNPs compared to their monometallic counterparts. These complex nanoparticles possess unique properties, including increased catalytic activity, greater stability, and superior biocompatibility. This review also summarised the mechanisms of fungalmediated synthesis, including enzymatic reduction and stabilisation pathways. This review also discussed the characterization and potential application of biosynthesized metal nanoparticles.In another review, Kumar et al. summarised the effects of various formulations of metal nanoparticles on crop growth and other traits. They critically highlighted the use of eight metal nanoparticles, such as zinc, iron, copper, silver, calcium, titanium, gold, and selenium, in improving the agronomic and economic characteristics in agriculture. It has been reported that ZnO and Fe2O3-NPs enhance nutrient uptake in plants, ultimately leading to increased photosynthesis and abiotic stress tolerance. The other nanoparticles, such as Cu-NPs and Ag-NPs, showed antibacterial and antifungal activity and can serve as a novel plant disease control tool. Studies on Ca and TiO2 nanoparticles have shown that they help crop plants cope with stresses such as salinity. At lower doses, Au and Se NPs have been found to enhance antioxidant activity and growth, whereas at higher doses they can cause negative effects. These findings have underscored the need for careful use of metal nanoparticles in agriculture.The integration of green synthesis using bioextract can provide a more sustainable alternative for the synthesis and use of MNPs in agriculture. For the green synthesis of gold and silver nanoparticles, Shahid et al. employed cucumber extract for two diverse applications.Characterization of biosynthesized NPs has revealed their crystalline nature. The antifungal activity of these nanoparticles was evaluated against root rot of mungbean caused by Macrophomina. It was found that in in vitro conditions, there is a 55-74% mycelial growth inhibition. In vivo studies have also shown that it is effective for controlling root-rot disease and promoting plant growth in mungbeans. In their study, the Ag NPs were more thermally stable than Au NPs and were explored to improve the performance of thermally activated delayed fluorescent (TADF) organic LEDs. This was done to broaden the application of biosynthesized NPs application in agriculture and optoelectronics. The results of the study revealed that incorporating Ag NPs into the hole-injection layer substantially enhanced the performance of the TADF organic LED.In the study by Belhedi et al.,silicon dioxide (SiO2) nanoparticles were used to control the Fusarium brachygibbosum pathogen in olive. It has been reported that this is a serious pathogen of olive and produces mycotoxin. In their study, the team evaluated the effects of SiO2 NPs on the growth and pathogenicity. These NPs at higher doses have shown effects on the fungal cell wall integrity and reduced pathogenicity in olive. These findings speculated on the future use of SiO2 NPs as an alternative fungicide.These researchers and recent studies have highlighted the use of nanomaterials to develop novel nanofungicides with properties such as slow or targeted release and stimuli-responsive formulations for sustainable management of pathogens. Another important aspect is the development of nano-based diagnostic tools for early and reliable detection of fungal pathogens. The researcher can also explore the fungi-based synthesis of nanomaterials and their applications across various fields. There is also the possibility of enhanced performance of beneficial fungal species when supplemented with nanomaterials.

Carrier injection imbalance severely limits the performance of quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QLEDs), emphasizing the demand for advanced transport layer materials. Herein, a high-performance reduced graphene oxide (rGO) hole injection layer (HIL) is prepared by thermally treating graphene oxide (GO) at 160 °C for 30 min, which boosts current density by two orders of magnitude, and tunes work function to 5.04 eV, thus lowering hole injection barriers. rGO-based QLEDs exhibit excellent optoelectronic performance, featuring a 2.0 V turn-on voltage and a maximum luminance of 120 000 cd m−2. Their peak external quantum efficiency (EQE) and current efficiency are enhanced from 8.07% and 8.99 cd A−1 (for same-batch GO-based devices) to 11.51% and 12.65 cd A−1. Further optimization elevates their peak EQE and current efficiency (CE) to 13.31% and 14.93 cd A−1, respectively. Performance gains stem from enhanced rGO conductivity, with rGO-based devices boasting superior thermal stability and low-temperature operability. This study verifies thermally reduced rGO as an ideal high-performance HIL, offering a new possibility for QLED optimization.

Transparent display technology is emerging as a pivotal direction for the future of the display industry. Metal halide perovskite materials, known for their outstanding optoelectronic properties, hold considerable promise for application in transparent perovskite light-emitting diodes (TPeLEDs). Nevertheless, the realization of high-performance TPeLEDs is still hindered by two major challenges: interfacial issues between the hole-injection layer (such as PEDOT: PSS) and the perovskite layer, and the difficulty of fabricating high-quality top transparent electrodes. In this work, we introduce a straightforward post-treatment strategy using methanol (MeOH) to simultaneously optimize the physical morphology, chemical composition, and electrical characteristics of PEDOT: PSS films. Results demonstrate that MeOH treatment effectively removes excess insulating PSS components from the PEDOT: PSS surface, yielding a smoother, more hydrophobic film with significantly enhanced conductivity. This optimized interface promotes the formation of a CsPbBr3 perovskite layer with improved crystallinity, more uniform coverage, and reduced defect density, thereby facilitating the subsequent deposition of a high-quality transparent top electrode. Benefiting from these improvements, the resulting transparent green TPeLED exhibits outstanding overall performance: a maximum total external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 7.35% and an average visible transmittance of 63.51%. Additionally, the device shows significantly enhanced current efficiency, spectral stability, and operational lifetime. This study offers a simple yet effective approach to addressing key interfacial issues in TPeLEDs, advancing the application of perovskite materials in transparent displays.

Electropolymerized Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) Films as Hole-injection Layers for Organic Light-emitting Diodes

ABSTRACT Perovskite light‐emitting diodes (PeLEDs) have emerged as a promising technology for future displays owing to their prominent optoelectronic properties. However, inefficient charge injection and nonradiative recombination at the interfaces, alongside defective crystal growth, remain the primary bottlenecks for efficient LED devices. Herein, we propose a “molecular suturing” strategy that synchronously stabilizes the interface and directs crystal growth using a multifunctional ligand. We employ methyl bis(2,2,2‐trifluoroethyl) phosphonoacetate (MBTPA), which features cooperative carbonyl (C = O), phosphoryl (P = O), and trifluoromethyl (─CF 3 ) groups. The C = O and P = O groups chemically bind to defect sites, forming coordination interactions with undercoordinated Pb 2+ and halide vacancies. Concurrently, the ─CF 3 moieties establish robust hydrogen‐bond interactions with hole injection layer. By providing these two complementary interactions on opposite sides, MBTPA effectively “sutures” the buried interface between the perovskite and the hole‐transport layer, strengthening interfacial adhesion and promoting more efficient hole injection. Consequently, MBTPA‐modified PeLEDs achieve bright blue emission at 485 nm with a peak external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 23.14%, and green emission at 513 nm with a peak EQE of 27.05%. This molecular suturing strategy provides an effective route for simultaneous control of interfacial chemistry and crystallization, offering a generalizable approach for performance enhancement in perovskite optoelectronic devices.

Perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs) have emerged as a promising technology for future displays owing to their prominent optoelectronic properties. However, inefficient charge injection and nonradiative recombination at the interfaces, alongside defective crystal growth, remain the primary bottlenecks for efficient LED devices. Herein, we propose a "molecular suturing" strategy that synchronously stabilizes the interface and directs crystal growth using a multifunctional ligand. We employ methyl bis(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl) phosphonoacetate (MBTPA), which features cooperative carbonyl (C = O), phosphoryl (P = O), and trifluoromethyl (─CF3) groups. The C = O and P = O groups chemically bind to defect sites, forming coordination interactions with undercoordinated Pb2+ and halide vacancies. Concurrently, the ─CF3 moieties establish robust hydrogen-bond interactions with hole injection layer. By providing these two complementary interactions on opposite sides, MBTPA effectively "sutures" the buried interface between the perovskite and the hole-transport layer, strengthening interfacial adhesion and promoting more efficient hole injection. Consequently, MBTPA-modified PeLEDs achieve bright blue emission at 485nm with a peak external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 23.14%, and green emission at 513nm with a peak EQE of 27.05%. This molecular suturing strategy provides an effective route for simultaneous control of interfacial chemistry and crystallization, offering a generalizable approach for performance enhancement in perovskite optoelectronic devices.

Quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QLEDs) hold immense potential for next-generation display technologies, yet their progress has been hampered by the lack of efficient inorganic hole-injection layers (HILs), which typically suffer from poor energy-level alignment and interfacial traps. Herein, a powerful interfacial engineering strategy is reported that transforms the performance of inorganic HILs by integrating Cu-doped NiO (Cu:NiO) with halide-functionalized self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of (2-(9H-carbazol-9-yl)ethyl)phosphonic acid (2PACz). Halide-SAMs induce strong dipoles that shift the Cu:NiO valence band to deeper levels, enhance hole density, suppress surface defects, and lower the hole-injection barrier into the hole-transport layer. Furthermore, density functional theory (DFT) calculations identify that the high polarizability of the halide substituents plays a decisive role. This high polarizability enhances van der Waals (vdW) dispersion forces, promoting robust molecular anchoring and the formation of a dense, stable passivation layer that effectively suppresses surface defects. Consequently, QLEDs incorporating I-2PACz-modified Cu:NiO achieve a record-high external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 26.95% (Mean 19.53%), a 3.5-fold improvement over unmodified devices. This represents the highest efficiency reported for green QLEDs employing inorganic HILs. This work demonstrates that simultaneously tuning interface polarity and molecular polarizability offers a viable pathway to trap-suppressed, charge-balanced, and high-performance QLED architectures.

Electrochemically engineered NiOx for high-performance quantum dot light-emitting diodes.

Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene): poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) is widely used as a hole injection layer (HIL) in quantum-dot (QD) light-emitting diodes (LEDs). However, its acidic and hygroscopic nature erodes the indium tin oxide electrode, causing serious device stability issues. To overcome the limitations, QLEDs that utilize self-assembled molecules (SAMs) as the HILs have been proposed and demonstrated, offering both high efficiency and improved stability. The 4PADCB SAM forms a high-quality film characterized by excellent transmittance and low surface roughness. Crucially, it possesses a high work function, which facilitates effective hole injection into the QD layer, thereby improving charge balance and reducing the accumulation of excess charges within the QLED. Additionally, the 4PADCB’s shallow lowest unoccupied molecular orbital energy level prevents electron leakage towards the anode. As a result, the 4PADCB-based red QLED exhibits a maximum external quantum efficiency of 28.07%, a peak power efficiency of 37.24 lm/W, and an extended <em>T</em>₉₅ operational lifetime of 12,401 h at 1000 cd/m², significantly outperforming the device based on PEDOT:PSS. This SAM HIL approach paves the way towards commercially viable, high-performance QLEDs in next generation displays.

Synergistic TE-mode engineering and polarization control in 290 nm AlGaN UVB LEDs via Al-graded hole injection layer