Hohokam Site Research Articles

Controversial Hohokam handstones from the Salt River Valley, Arizona

The presence and function in several Hohokam sites of controversial objects, currently described as handstones or crushers, remains an unsolved matter. Their morphology recalls similar Mesoamerican pieces, the manoplas, generally considered to be related to the ballgame. The identification of ballcourts in Hohokam sites has long been a controversial issue, but is now generally agreed on. This paper does not aim to resolve this interrogation, but rather to call attention to a problematic aspect of relationships between Mesoamerica and Oasisamerica.

Social Network Analysis of Early Classic Hohokam Corporate Group Inequality

Network analysis provides a unique approach for archaeologists to identify structural relationships between the emergent properties of social interactions and the trajectory of corporate groups. This article presents the results of a survey of architectural features and a network analysis of walkways between house clusters at the thirteenth-century Hohokam site of Cerro Prieto, located in the Tucson Basin, Arizona. Statistical measures suggest that nascent inequality was developing at this site, making it an excellent case study of the factors that led to the emergence of economic and social differentiation. Network analysis provides a means to explain how corporate groups were able to leverage social connections in their struggle for ascendance in these spheres of interaction. Regardless of the strategy of social ascendance, a simple increase in the opportunity to influence others appears to explain a large portion of differential corporate group success.

Dogs, Deer, or Guanacos: Zoomorphic Figurines from Pueblo Grande, Central Arizona

Excavations at the large Hohokam site of Pueblo Grande, one of the most important of the Salt River valley villages of central Arizona, recovered an unusual group of zoomorphic ceramic figurines dated to the Preclassic, between A.D. 950/1000 and 1100/1150. The figures, quadrupeds with raised tails and ears, were found in a Sacaton phase pithouse and are thought to be part of a ceremonial offering or act. This study describes the figures and suggests they represent dogs rather than deer or the South American camelid, the guanaco. The Pueblo Grande figures are compared with similar figures from other parts of the Hohokam world.

Grief and Burial in the American Southwest: The Role of Evolutionary Theory in the Interpretation of Mortuary Remains

Evolutionary theory, in consort with Marxism and processualism, provides new insights into the interpretation of grave-good variation. Processual interpretations of burial sites in the American Southwest cite age, sex, or social rank as the main determinants of burial-good variation. Marxist theorists suggest that mortuary ritual mediates social tension between an egalitarian mindset and an existing social inequality. Evolutionary theory provides a supplementary explanatory framework. Recent studies guided by kin-selection theory suggest that humans grieve more for individuals of high reproductive value and genetic relatedness. Ethnographic examples also show that individuals mourn more intensively and, thus, place more social emphasis on burials of individuals of highest reproductive value (young adults). Analysis of grave goods from La Ciudad, a Hohokam site in the American Southwest, supports the hypothesis that labor value, reproductive value, and grief contributed to grave-good differentiation. At La Ciudad, individuals between the ages of 10 and 20 possessed more and higher-quality grave goods on average than any other age group. Grief at the loss of a young adult of high reproductive and labor value may facilitate explanation of mortuary variation at La Ciudad, as well as other sites in the greater Southwest and beyond.

Households at a Rincon Phase Hohokam Site in the Tucson Basin of Southern Arizona

Excavations at a small Rincon phase (A.C. 950–1150) Hohokam site in the foothills of the Santa Catalina Mountains in the Tucson Basin of southern Arizona show ties to a larger floodplain village that it may have provided with agricultural products. This study, concentrating on households, expands our understanding of the settlement system of the Rincon phase Hohokam by integrating upland sites with those of the floodplain.

Households at a Rincon Phase Hohokam Site in the Tucson Basin of Southern Arizona

Households at a Rincon Phase Hohokam Site in the Tucson Basin of Southern Arizona

Methodological Issues Concerning Screen Size Recovery Rates and Their Effects on Archaeofaunal Interpretations

Inferences of subsistence patterns and palaeoenvironments derived from archaeofaunal remains ultimately depend upon the methodology used to collect the samples. An entire spectrum of small- and medium-sized animals is often under-represented or not recovered with the use of 14in. mesh, yet this screen size has become the “industry standard” in North American archaeology, especially the South-west. Comparisons are presented for archaeofaunal remains recovered using several screen sizes and flotation samples from the Maricopa Road Site and Pueblo Grande, two Hohokam sites (ad700 to 1450) in southern Arizona. Results indicate that (1) if control units are excavated with 18in. screens, correction values might be applied in some cases to faunal samples recovered with 14in.; (2) the Lagomorph Index is biased against cottontails when 14in. screens are employed; (3) 90% of fish remains at sites may be lost through 14in.; and (4) bones collected from flotation samples are of limited value in most archaeofaunal studies from a quantitative standpoint because the data are incompatible with other faunal recovery techniques.

The Social and Economic Contexts of Lithic Procurement: Obsidian from Classic-Period Hohokam Sites

The social and economic organization of obsidian procurement has been a topic of particular interest in southwestern archaeology as a result of recent work identifying and characterizing a number of sources throughout Arizona, New Mexico, and northern Mexico. Recent studies have attempted to explain temporal and spatial variability of obsidian distribution in the larger contexts of regional exchange networks, socially bounded territories, and elite redistributive efforts. This study reviews the current state of research as reflected in three models. Patterns in obsidian source diversity and reduction stage data are assessed relative to model expectations and an analysis of obsidian acquisition and distribution. The likelihood of elite members of an increasingly formalized socioeconomic system playing a role in these processes should be considered, while at the same time noting that kin-based raw material procurement and ritual item mobilization may explain many of the obsidian patterns. The emerging perspective suggests that obsidian moved in a variety of spheres, concurrently serving a number of social and economic purposes. This study highlights the importance of modeling individual, nonlocal commodities before attempting to generate monolithic exchange models.

Botanical Signatures of Water Storage Duration in a Hohokam Reservoir

Although large-scale canal irrigation technology is commonly associated with the prehistoric Hohokam (A.D. 200–1450) of south-central Arizona, earthen reservoirs were essential for domestic water storage in areas of the Sonoran Desert away from perennial streams. Interpretations of seasonal water storage in prehistoric Hohokam reservoirs are often based on direct analogy with the historic Tohono O'odham (formerly called the Papago). This assumption of seasonal water storage is a hypothesis that should be tested rather than uncritically accepted by archaeologists. Sediments recovered with a hand-driven bucket auger from an earthen reservoir at a large Classic-period (ca. A.D. 1200–1450) Hohokam site (AZ AA:3:32 [ASM]) yielded uncarbonized seeds of an aquatic plant belonging to the genus Lemna (duckweed). The high number of Lemna seeds indicates that water may have been stored on a long-term, perhaps perennial, basis. Analyses of sediments from other reservoirs should generate further discoveries of uncarbonized seeds or other biological remains (e.g., pollen, phytoliths, diatoms, snails) and refine our understanding of prehistoric water storage facilities throughout the world.

The Impact of Raw-Material Scarcity on Ground-Stone Manufacture and Use: An Example from the Phoenix Basin Hohokam

Current models of ground-stone design, which relate tool morphology and size to subsistence economies, are based on assumptions of energy efficiency and processing constraints of the foodstuffs being ground. These models do not consider the impact of raw-material scarcity on ground-stone technologies. This impact is investigated here using an assemblage from the Classic-period Hohokam site of Pueblo Grande, Arizona. The current model of ground-stone design is modified to account for raw-material scarcity. Specifically, it is demonstrated that raw-material scarcity affects ground-stone manufacture, use, and discard patterns. It is argued here that studies using ground-stone assemblages to reconstruct subsistence economies must take these factors into consideration in areas where raw-material scarcity occurs.

Archaeomagnetic Dating at Pueblo Grande

One hundred and seventy-four archaeomagnetic samples from burned features were collected at Pueblo Grande, a Hohokam site in Phoenix, Arizona. This large data set yields an excellent opportunity to evaluate the potential contribution of archaeomagnetism to solving chronometric problems. It allows a consideration (1) of different sampling schemes, (2) of the archaeomagnetic quality of samples that do and do not produce archaeomagnetic dates, (3) of samples that do not date according to archaeological expectations, and (4) an analysis of the factors that influence dating precision. Further, comparing 109 and 19 of the archaeomagnetic dates with associated ceramic and radiocarbon dates provides measures of the accuracy of archaeomagnetic dates.

A Study in Sourcing Hohokam Basalt Ground Stone Implements

ABSTRACTGround stone implements were important tools for the Hohokam because they relied heavily on plant foods in their diet. Current data suggest that in the Phoenix Basin vesicular basalt materials were favored for the rectangular mano and trough metates common at most Hohokam sites. The distribution of basaltic materials is relatively limited' however, and specific outcrops were exploited as quarries. Experiments with low-power reflected light and BSE-EDX microscopic sourcing techniques indicate that several regional basalt sources exist, and that these sources may be identifiable in ground stone assemblages. The composition of various source materials at different sites has the potential to provide insights into Hohokam ground stone production and trade.

On Rivers and Boundaries in the Phoenix Basin, Arizona

ABSTRACTBased on the distribution of non-local pottery recovered from Hohokam sites in south-central Arizona, Patricia Crown (1987) proposed that the Salt and Gila rivers served as boundaries for Hohokam exchange systems. Additional analysis based upon a larger sample of trade pottery does not uniformly support this proposition. Both similarities and differences existed in the spatial distribution of imported pottery in the Phoenix Basin during the Late Formative period (A.D. 700–1050). An increase in the acquisition of non-local pottery coincided with increasing regional similarity across the Phoenix Basin during the late Classic period after A.D. 1300. A spatial model based on proximity to source area accounts for most but not all of the distributions of imported pottery within the Phoenix Basin.

Small Site Function and Duration of Occupation in the Hohokam Northern Periphery

A site typology developed for the Hohokam core area in the Phoenix Basin is evaluated for sites in the northern periphery using excavated data from small sites on the New and Verde rivers. Assumed differences in the tasks carried out at limited activity locations, field houses, farmsteads, and hamlets are examined using the ceramic and lithic assemblages recovered at these sites. This study evaluates the applicability of the Hohokam site typology to sites outside of the Phoenix Basin and the appropriateness of functionally based site typologies in general. An alternative interpretation of small sites is offered relying on differences in duration of occupation, rather than differences in function. Additionally, the analysis suggests the New River and Verde River areas may have been exploited in different ways by the Hohokam.

Burial Practices and Paleodemographic Reconstructions at Pueblo Grande

Archaeological investigations at the Hohokam site of Pueblo Grande in Phoenix, Arizona, identified a number of individual residential areas as well as over 800 burials dating to the Classic period. The burials were interred in discrete groups, located both within and adjacent to the residential areas. The burial practices and the spatial patterns observed at the individual cemeteries are described. The presence of discrete cemeteries and the spatial arrangements of burials within them suggest the presence of distinctive social units at the site. Paleodemographic population projections are made for two habitation areas and two adjacent cemeteries.

Hunting by Hohokam Desert Farmers

ABSTRACTPrehistoric hunting in south-central Arizona continued to be an important part of the Hohokam subsistence strategies after domestic crops were introduced. A model of animal procurement by Southwest horticulturalists, based on ecological and ethnographic studies, examines the impact horticulturalists had on the environment and the ways in which that impact affected other aspects of subsistence—specifically hunting behavior. Six major patterns observed in Hohokam faunal assemblages support this model. These include (1) a reliance on small-and medium-sized mammals as sources of animal protein, (2) the presence of water-dependent taxa associated with culturally modified environments, (3) the use of rodents as food, (4) the differential reliance on cottontails (Sylvilagus) and jackrabbits (Lepus) at Hohokam farmsteads and villages, (5) the relative decrease in the exploitation of cottontails versus jackrabbits the longer a Hohokam site was occupied, and (6) a relationship between site location and arti...

Paleonutrition and Paleopathology of the Salt River Hohokam: A Search for Correlates

ABSTRACTRecent excavations at the Phoenix area Hohokam sites of Grand Canal Ruins, Casa Buena, and La Ciudad yielded 163 non-cremated human skeletons representing both the pre-Classic and Classic periods. Several conditions associated with nutritional stress were observed in these remains including dental caries, wear and calculus formation, antemortem tooth loss, enamel hypoplasia, porotic hyperostosis, rickets, bladder stone disease and short stature. Some of these conditions reflect weaning and infectious disease stress occurring in childhood, rather than adult nutritional inadequacies. Only dental canes, wear and calculus formation, and antemortem tooth loss could be used to measure the effect of the Hohokam dietary regime on adults. The paleopathological evidence preserved in these remains does not appear to negate the idea that the Hohokam possessed a rich and varied diet as proposed by archaeobotanists, but does suggest nutritional irregularities occurring in early childhood.

An Alternative View of Sedentary Period Hohokam Shell-Ornament Production

Analysis of unpublished house floor and fill data has revealed new information concerning the production and distribution of shell artifacts at the Hohokam site of Snaketown. In addition to presenting data on the frequency and distribution of shell in structures, the analysis identifies manufacturing loci and evaluates previous statements concerning craft production at the site. Implications for the organization of production and exchange during the Sacaton phase also are considered. It is concluded that local kin groups could have procured, produced, and distributed shell products. This reconstruction is provided as an alternative to views which hold that a higher-level administrative agency was in control of the production and distribution of marine shell.

Geomorphic analysis of Hohokam settlement patterns on alluvial fans along the western Flank of the Tortolita Mountains, Arizona

AbstractGeoarchaeological investigations of the alluvial piedmont or bajada emanating from the Tortolita Mountains, Arizona, show that the distribution of Hohokam sites apparent from the surface is complete and undisturbed by geological processes. Late Holocene geomorphic processes and their resultant deposits on the bajada affected the location of prehistoric Hohokam agricultural settlements. Hohokam settlements were commonly situated on small alluvial fans dominated by sheetwash processes and deposition of fine‐grained alluvium, where floodwater farming could be easily pursued with little modification of the natural surface. Large alluvial fans, dominated by channel processes and coarse‐grained alluvium were avoided by the Hohokam farmer because these areas were less suitable for floodwater farming.

Palynological Research at Pueblo Grande Ruin

ABSTRACTPueblo Grande Ruin is a major Pioneer through Classic period Hohokam site in Phoenix, Arizona. Numerous excavation programs have been conducted at the site. Results of the first palynological studies are presented, with an emphasis on Sedentary and Classic period materials. An attempt is made to correlate available macrobotanical information with the palynological results.